*^ 



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pSjM*4v^^ 



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TMiE 



ARTIST & THADESMAH^S GTHDE. 



EMBRACING 



SOME LEADING FACTS & PRINCIPLES OF SCIENCE, 

AND A VARIETY OP MATTER ADAPTED TO THE WANTS 

OF THE 

ARTIST, MECHANIC, MANUFACTURER, 

AND 

mERCAVrTTLE COHOSUJinUTt 

TO WHICH IS ANNEXED 

AJf ABSTRACT OF TONNAGE, DUTIES, 
CUSTOM-HOUSE TARES, AND ALLOWANCES. 

Commerce and Manufactures — the main sheet anckoT of a D&tiiMu 



VTICA: 

PRINTED BY WILLIAM WILLIAMS, 

No. 60, Genesee Btreit 
1827. 



5V^ 




Nocthem District of New York, to wit: 
BE IT REMEMBERED, Tiiat on the eightJi day of November, in the fifty-first year of 
the independence of the United States of America, A. D. 1827, John Shepard, of the 
said district, hath deposited in this office the title of a book, the right whereof he claims^as 
proprietor, in the words following, to wit. 

"The Artist and Tradesman's Guide; embracing some leading facts and principles of 
science, and a variety of matter adapted to the wants of the artist, mechanic, manufacturer, 
and mercantile community. To which is annexed an abstract of tonnage, duties, custom-house 
lares and allowances. Commerce and manufactures — the main sheet anchor of a nation." 

In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United States, entitled "An act for the en- 
couragement of iearnuig, by seciu-ing the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors 
and proprietors of such copies, during the times therein mentioned;" and also to the act en- 
titled "An act supplementary to an act entitled *An act for the encouragement of learning, 
by securing the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies 
during the times therein mentioned,' and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of design- 
ing, engTdviug, and etching, historical and other prints." 

R. R. LAI.'SING, 
Clerk of the District Court of the United States, 
for the Northern District of New York. 






ADVERTISEMENT. 



i.„..^._ 

^^ which has occurred m the publication of this work. 
The time required to prepare and aiTaiige the mate- 
rials, has been much greater than was anticipated; nor 
after the labour and care bestowed, can we presume 
to declare every article perfect. Our object has been 
to render the w^ork practically useful, rather than to 
make a display of science and fine writing — to the lat- 
ter of which we make no pretence. If the merchant 
and the mechanic are benefitted by our exertions, and 
we have the vanity to believe that they will be, we 
have not "laboured for nought," but shall reap a rich 
reward in the reflection that we have in any degree 
been useful to those classes of community, who are the 
bone and sinews of our republic. To them we com- 
mit, without further remark, this little manual. 

THE AUTHOR. 
Nov. 1827. 



I 






CONTENTS. 

SOAPIER. PJlfiE. 

I. Introduction, 

II. Chemistry, importance and use of - - 9 

General Principles of Chemistry, * - 10 

III. Caloric, Thermometer, ^ ^ - 11 

IV. Water, - - - * • * 12 
V. Earths and Alkalies, * ^ * 13 

Acids and Salts, • * *. • 14 

VI. Simple Combustibles, * - - '" 15 

Classification of Simple Bodies, - * - 16 

Oxydes and Combustion, - * - 17 

VII. Electricity, - - - - * 18 

Galvanism, - - - - - 20 

VIII. Light, ----- • 21 

Chemical Affinity, - - - - 22- 

IX. Of the Gases, - - - - - 23 

X. Salts, Powders, &c. * - . , 29 

XI. Soap and Pomades, * * - - 34 

XII. Art of Painting, * - - - 35 

XIII. Paints, Cosmetics, Dies, &c. * - - 40 

XIV. Glues, Pastes, &c. - - - --49 
XV. Blineralogy, - - - - - 51 

Characters of Minerals. Classification of Minerals, 52 

XVI. The Art of Assaying Ores, - - - 56 

XVII. The Art of Working Metals, - - - 68 

XVIII. Sculpture and Printing, -. -^ t 80 

XIX. Engraving, Etching, &c. - - - * 83 

XX. Glass, Discovery, and Art of Manufacturing, - 89 

XXI. Gilding, Silvering, &c. ... - 91 

XXII. Varnishes, - - - - - 102 

XXIII. Commerce and Manufactures, - - - 121 

XXIV. The Art of Dying, - - - - 128 
XXV. Artist and Mechanic, . - , . 142 

XXV!. The Art ©f Calico Printin^j - - • 14^ 



CONTENTS. 



t;^4/TER;, PAGE. 

XXYII. Factors, Agent's, &c. Laws Relative to same, 150 

XXVIII. Discount and Cofnmissions, - - - 153 

■ XXrX. Bleaching, - « -# . . - 154 

XXX. Imitation Spirits, - '»-^ - - 159 

XXXI. Credits, ^ - - ' - ■- 161 

XXXII. Colouring Spirits, - - - - 163 

XXXIII. Distillation, &c.. - * -* - : 164 

Of Brewing, - - .- - - 165 

Bodies proper for Distillation, - - 169 

Cordials, - - - - - 170 

• Wines, - - - - - 171 

Rectification, - - - - - 173 

Fermentation, - - - - 175 

Metheglin, Mead, Wines, &c. - - - 183 

To fine Spirits, Ratafias, Chremes, Shrub, &c. 184 

Filtration, - - - " - ib. 

Syrups and Beer, * - - - 158 

Cherry Brandy, Raisin and Apple Spirits, - 186 

Sugar Spirits, - - - - 187 

XXXV. Laws Relative to Spirits, WineSj Teas, &c. - 188 

XXXVL Of Teas, Sugars, &c. - - - 189 

XXXVII. Useful Receipts, . . - . 193 
XXXVIII. Mensuration, 

Log Table, 203 

Wolf's Table of Steam, - - - 203 

Solid Measure of Round Timber, - - 204 

Horse Power on Canal and Railroad, - 208 
Pressure of Yfater, and Solid Measure of Square 

Timber, - - - - - 208 

XXXIX. Abstract of Duties, 

Tonnage, ----- 211 

Duties, - - - - - --211 

Allowances, - - - - 215 

Tares, 215 



i 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 

1 Gallon measure (cong.) contains 8 pints, 

8 pints 16 ounces, 
1 ounce, 8 drachms, 

1 drachm, 60 minims. 

WEIGHT OF DRY SUBSTANCES. 

1 pound contains 12 ounces, 
1 ounce, 8 drachms, 

1 drachm, 60 grains, 
1 Scruple, 20 grains. 

It is customary to distinguish quantities of fluid from dry substan- 
ces, by prefixing the letter f. (fluid) when an ounce or drachm is men- 
tioned in medical works; but in the prescriptions or formulae, in this 
work, it was considered unnecessary, as the slightest acquaintance 
with the substances to be used will point out what is impUed. 



1 



ARTIST AND TRADESMAN'S GUIDE, 



CHAPTER I. 
IHTROSUCTIONi 

To the manufacturer, chemistry has lately become fruitful of in- 
struction and assistance. In the arts of brewing, tanning, dying, and 
bleaching, its doctrines are important guides. In making soap, gkss, 
pottery, and all metallic wares, its principles are daily applied,fand 
are capable of a still more useful appUcation, as they become better 
understood. Indeed every mechanic art, in the different processes 
of which heat, moisture, solution, mixture or fermentation is neces- 
sary, must ever keep pace in improvement with this branch of philos- 
ophy. Finally, there is scarcely an art of human life, which the sci- 
ence of chemistry is not fitted to subserve; scarcely a department of 
human inquiry, either for health, pleasure, ornament, or profit, which 
it may not be made in its present improved state, eminently to pro- 
mote. To illustrate the science fully, in all its parts, would require 
more pages than this v/ork is designed to contain; therefore, we shall 
be confined to some of the leading principles, and most useful prac- 
tical operations, which it embraces. 

CHAPTER II. 

THi: GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF CHEMISTRY. 

The science of chemistry naturally divides itself into three parts; 
a description of the component parts of bodies, or of elementary or 
simple substances as they are called, — a description of the compound 
bodies formed by the union of simple substances, and an account of 
the nature of the power which produces these combinations. This 
power is known in chemistry by the name of affinity, or chemical at- 
traction. By simple substances is not meant what the ancient phi- 
losophers called elements of bodies, as lire, air, earth, and water, nor 
particles of matter incapable of farther diminution or division. They 
signify merely bodies that have never been decomposed, or formed 
by art. The simple substances of which a body is composed are 
called the constituent parts of that body; and in decomposing it, we 
separate its constituent parts. If on the contrary we divide a body 
by cutting it to pieces, or even by grinding it to the finest powder, 
each of these small particles will consist of a portion of the general 
constituent parts of the whole body; these are called the integrant 
parts. Compound bodies are formed by the combination of two or 
more simple substances with each other. Attraction is that unknow^n 
force which causes bodies to approach each other. Its most ob- 
vious instances arc the gravitation of bodies to the earth; that of 
the planets towards each other, and the attractions of electricity and 
magnetism. But that attraction which comes under the more imme- 
diate cognizance of chemistSj subsists betv/een the particles of bodies* 
and when it operates between pa!:ticlei of lac saiae species, it is call- 
ed the attraction of cokesian, ot tho attraction fcf 3<irire;?3tj:on; bct 



-Kjs- 



10 TItE ARTIST AND 

•when between the particles of different substances, it is called thfe 
attraction of composition, chemical attraction, or chemical affinity* 
The attraction of cohesion, thert is the power which unites the info 
grajif particles of a body: the attraction of composition, that which 
combines the constituent paij^cles. • When particles are united by the 
attraction of cohesion, the result of such a union is a body of the same 
kind as the particles of which it is formed; but the attraction of com- 
position, by combining particles o'f a dissimilar nature, produces com- 
pound bodies quite different from any of their constituents. If, for in- 
stance, you pour upon a piece of copper, placed in a glass vessel, some 
of the liquid called nitrous acid, (aqua fortis) for which it has a strong 
attraction, every particle of the copper will combine with a particle 
of the acid, and together they will form a new body, totally dmerent 
from either the copper or nitrous acid. If you wish to decompose the 
compound which you have thus formed, present it to a piece of iron, 
for which the acid has a stronger affinity than for copper; and the acid 
^vill quit the copper to combine with the iron, and the copper will bo 
then what the chemists caW precipiiated, that is to say, it will be thrown 
down in its separate state, and reappear in its simple form. In order to 
produce this effect, dip the blade of a knife into the fluid, and when 
you take it out, you wdll observe, that, instead of being wetted with a 
bluish liquid like that contained in the glass, it will be covered with a 
thin coat of copper. 

It Vvill be most conducive to science to consider all those substan* 
ces as simple, which no mode of decomposing has yet been discov'* 
ered. Simple substances naturally divide themselves into two classes. 
Those which belong to the first class are of too subtile a nature tO 
be confined to any vessels which we possess. They do not serious- 
ly affect the most delicate balance, and have received therefore the 
name of imponderable bodies. The second class of bodies may be 
confined in proper vessels, may be exhibited in a separate state, and 
their weights or other properties may be determined. They have re- 
ceived the name of ponderable bodies. The impondeiable bodies at 
present supposed to exist are four, hght, heat or caloric, electricity, 
and magnetism. The first three are intimately connected with chem- 
istry, but magnetism has with it no known connexion. 

CHAPTER III. 

Caloric* Chemists have agreed to call the matter of heat Calor- 
ic, in order to distinguish it from the sensation which this matter pro- 
duces. Caloric has a tendency to diffuse itself equally among all 
substances that come in contact with it. If the hand be put upon a 
hot body, part of the caloric leaves the hot body, and enters tbe hand; 
this produces the sensation of heat. On the contrary, if the hand be 
put upon a cold body, part of the caloric contained in the hand leaves 
the hand to unite \nt\i the cold body; this produces the sensa,tion of 
cold. Cold therefore is nothing but a negative quality, simply imply- 
ing the absence of the usual quantity of caloric. Caloric is 
uniform in its nature; but there exists in all bodies, two portions 
very distinct from each other. The one is called sensible heat, or free 
caloric; the other latent heat, or combined calorie. Sensible caloric 
is the nature of heat disengaged from ofher bodies, or. if united, not 



TRA.D,E§MAN^S GUIDE. * H 

t 

chemically united with them. Latent caloric is that portion of the * 
matter of heat, which makes no sensible addition to tlie temperature of 
the bodies in which it exists. Wrought iron, ihough quite celd, coa- 
tains a large portion of latent caloric; and if it be briskly hammered for 
some time on an anvil, it will become red hot, by. the action of this 
species of caloric, which by the percussion of hammering is now 
evolved and forc^ed out as sensible heat. » Caloric pen^ades ail bodies- 
and this is not the case v>ith any other substance with which we are 
acquainted. It combines with different substances, however, in very 
different proportions; and for this reason one body is said to have a 
greater capacity for caloric than another. When gaseous substances 
become liquid, or liquid substances solid, by this change of state, they 
lose in a great measure their capacity for caloric. During the slack- 
ing of quick lime, the caloric which is involved escapes from the wa- 
ter, in consequence of its changing from a liquid to a solid form, by 
its union with the lime. When solid bodies become liquid or gase- 
ous, their capacity for caloric is proportionably increased. If you 
place a glass of water in a mixture of equal quantities of snow and 
salt, during their conversion to a liquid, the water will be frozen in 
consequence of parting with its caloric to supply the increased capa- 
city of the mixture. The portion of caloric necessary to raise a body 
to any given temperature, is called specific caloric. The instrum.ent 
in common use for measuring the temperature of bodies, is called a 
thermometer. Fahrenheit's is generally used in the United States. 
When a thermometer is brought in contact with any substance, the 
mercury expands or contracts till it acquires the same temperature; 
and the height at which the mercury stands in the tube, indicates the- 
exact temperature of the substance to which it has been applied. It 
will not show the absolute caloric in substances; for it cannot meas- 
ure that portion which is latent, or chemically combined with any 
body. Caloric is the cause of fluidity in all substances capable of 
becoming fluids, from the heaviest metal to the hghtest gas. It in- 
sinuates itself among their particles and invariably separates them in 
some measure from each other. Thus ice is converted into water, 
and by a further portion of caloric into steam. We have reason to be- 
lieve that every solid substance on the face of the earth might be con- 
verted to fluid of a very high temperature in peculiar circumstances. 
Some bodies give out their superabundant caloric much sooner than 
others. Iron is a quicker conductor of caloric than glass, and glass 
than v/ood. If you take a piece of iron in one hand and a piece of 
waod in the other, the iron feels cold, the wood warmer, though the 
thermometer shows that their temperature is the same. Substances 
usually become more dense by the loss of caloric; but the freezing of 
water is a sticking exception to this general law of nature, and is a 
memorable instance of the wisdom and provident care of the Almigh- 



Abstract caloric from steam until but 212 degrees remain, according (o Fahrenheit's 
scale, and it will become water. Take away 180 degi-ees more, leaving but 32, and it 
will become ice. All gases'and liquids wohM become solids, if caloric were abstracted to a 
certain degree, till at length all things would become permanently solid as the oldest primi- 
tive rocks. 

Water does not require 212 degrees of heat for converting it into vapour: it has been made 
to boil at 67 degrees, which is 31 belo^v blood heat. Therefore it requires 145 decrees of 



li? T,HE ARTIST AND 

- iiGaf t© resist iiie prpsinx <A the af mospheite. From the followmg experiment we are tauglif^, 
that combined caloric does not excite the sensation of heat nor affect the thermometer: F-tii 
a piece of tinder in the end of the piston of the fire sjTinge, made of cotton cloth dipped iu 
a very stroijg solution of salt petre, and well dried — force down the piston suddenly and the 
tinder will take fire. Caloric was combined with the air in the syringe before it was com- 
pressed, wliich did not excite the scnsition of heat uor imfiame the tinder. There is so much 
caloric in the combination of air, water and other substances about us, that if it were capable 
of producing the ordinary elTects of heat, the whole human family v.'ould be burned in a'day. 
From the principle that caloric expands solids as well as gases, the variation in length of pen- 
dulums of clocks aiid balance wheels of watches, according to the varying temperature of 
the weather, causing them to run faster in cold and slower ia hot weather, can be accounted 
for. 

That caloric expands liquids is clearly demonstrated by the fact, that spirits guage more ir . 
- warm, and less in cold weather. The experiment may easily be tried by placing a barrel oi^ 
rum in the sun, nearly full; if the thermometer ranges high, the liquor will soon i-un over. ' 
Then place it in a cold cellar, let it remain awhile, and the reverse will be evident. 

An h-on stove quickly gives oif caloric heat into a room, and as soon cools. A briekRus4 
sian stove, must be heated a great while before it begins to give off caloric, and will not coof 
in a long time. Clothes made of wool and silk are slow conductors of caloric; those made 
of flax conduct rapidly — stone is a better conductor of caloric than brick. A stone house has 
its rooms sooner heated in summer and cooled in winter, than^a brick house- A white earthen 
tea pot will keep tea hot longer than a black one — a bright tin coffee pot will keep coffee hot 
longer than a jappaned one. We are kept cooler in summer with light coloured clothes and 
warmier in winter, than with those which are dark coloured; for our bodies being warmer than 
the air in cold weather, caloric passes out through our clothes, but the hot rays of the sun in 
summer pass through our clothes inwardly. 

CHAPTER IV. 

Water. Water is composed of 88 parts hy weight of oxygen, and 
12 of hydrogen in every 100 parts of the fluid. It is found in four 
states, namely: Solid, or ice; liquid, or water; vapour, or steam; and 
in a state of composition with other bodies. Its most simple state is 
that of ice, and the difference between liquid water or vapour and ice, 
is merely that the water contains a larger portion of caloric than ice, 
and that vapour is combined with still a greater quantity than water. 
However long Ave boil a fluid in an open vessel we cannot make it in 
tlie smallest degree hotter than its boiling ppint, for thei vapour ab- 
sorbs the caloric, and carries it off as it is produced. It is owing to 
this that all evaporation produces cold. An animal might be frozen 
to death in the midst of summer by repeatedly sprinkling ether upon 
him, for its evaporation would shortly carry oif the whole of his vital 
heat. Water thrown on burning bodies acts in the same way — it be- 
comes in an instant converted into vapour and by thus depriving them 
of a large portion of their caloric, the fire, as we term it, is extin- 
guished. Vapour occupies a space eight hundred times greater than 
it does when in the form of water — and the expansive force of steam 
is found by experiment to be much greater than that of gun powder. 
There is no reason to disbelieve that in time, steam may be applied 
to many useful purposes of v/hich we have no idea. 

Water is said to be in a state of composition with other bodies, be- 
cause in many cases it becomes one of their component parts. It is 
combined in a state of solidity in marble, in chrystals, in spars, in 
gems, and in many alkaline, earthy, and metallic salts, both natural 
and artificial, to all of which substances it imparts hardness, and to 
most of lliem transparency. Near the poles water is always sol- 
id; there it is similar to the hardest rocks, and may be formed by the 
chisel of the statuary, like stone. It becomes still more solid in the 
composition called mortar, and in cements, having parted with more 
of its c?t1»ri<? in that corabination than in, the act of freezing. If you 



TRADESMAN'S GUIDE. IS 

take some ground plaster of Paris, fresh calcined, and mix it with a 
little water, the affinity of the plaster for the water is so great, that 
in a few minutes the whole will be converted to a solid. 

CHAPTER V. * 

Earths and Alkalies. Earths are such incombustible sub->- 
stances as are not ductile, are mostly insoluble in water or oil, and 
preserve their constitution in a, strobg heat. Notwithstanding the 
varied appearance of the earth under our feet, and the mountainous 
parts of the world, whose diversified strata present to our view sub- 
stances of every texture and shade, the whole is composed of only 
nine primitive earths; and as three of these occur but seldom, the 
variety produced by the other six becomes the more remarkable. 
One of the most valuable earths with which we are acquainted is si- 
lex, or pure flint. It is the most durable article in the state of grav- 
el for the formation of roads. It is a necessary ingredient in earth- 
en ware, porcelain and cements; it is the basis of glass, and of all 
nitrous substances. It is white, inodorous, and insipid, in its pure 
state, and the various colours which it assumes in different substan- 
ces, proceed from the different ingredients with which it is mixed. 
Alumine obtained its name from its being the base of the salt called 
£ilum. It is distributed over the earth in the form of clay, and on ac- 
count of its aptitude for moulding into different forms and its property 
of hardening in the fire, is employed for various useful purposes. In 
making earthen ware, a due proportion both of silex and alumine are 
necessary; for if alumiiife alone were used, the ware could not be suf- 
ficiently burnt without shrinking too much, and even cracking; and a 
great excess of silex would lessen the tenacity and render the ware 
brittle. Lime is never found pure in nature; it is obtained by decom- 
posing calcareous matters by the action of fire, which deprives them 
of their acid. In its pure state it is used in many of the arts. It is 
employed by the farmers as a manure; and by bleachers, tanners, iron- 
masters and others in their several manufactures, and in medicine. 
The use of lime in agriculture may be attributed to its property of 
hastening the dissolution of all vegetable and animal matters, and of 
imparting to the soil a power of retaining a quantity of moisture neces- 
sary for the nourishment and vigorous growth of the plants. Magne- 
sia, besides being the basis of several salts is of great use in medi- 
cine; and is employed by the manufacturers of enamels and porcelain. 
The alkalies are distinguished by an acrid and peculiar taste, they 
change the blue juices of vegetables to a green, and the yellow to a 
brown and have the property of rendering oil miscible with water. 
They form various salts by combination with acids, act as powerful 
caustics, when applied to the flesh of aniraalS; and are soluble in water. 
Potash and soda have been called fixed alkaUes, because they will en- 
dure a great heat without being volatilized; and yet in a very high tem- 
perature they are dissipated in vapour. They are compounds of me- 
taUic substances, called potassium, sodium and oxygen. They have 
various uses in surgery and medicine, and are employed in large quan- 
tities by the glassmaker, the dyer, the soapmaker, the colourmaker, 
and ^y many other manufacturers. Ammonia is so extremely volatile 
as to^Bxhale at all known temperatures. When combined with carbonic 



»1^ >XH"a> Ajt^isy Ajsiij 

acid, it takes a concrete form, and a beautiful white colour, and it^ 
known in commerce by the name of volatile salts. With muriatic acid 
it forms what is termed sal ammonia, which is employed in many of 
our manufactures, particularly by dyers to give a brightness to certain 
colours. In tinning nietals ii|,is of use to cleanse the surfaces, and 
prevent them from oxydizing by the heat which is given to them in the 
operation. Ammonia is furnished from all animal substances by de- 
composition. The horns of cattle, especially those of deer, yield it in 
abundance, and it is from this circumstance that a solution of ammo- 
nia in v/ater has been termed hartshorn. 

Besides the nine earths above enumerated, we have now fhorina, which is a raw earthy 
substance lately discovered. A new alkali, called Uthia, has recently been discovered, 
which, like potash and soda, is found to be a metallic oxyde; its base is called lithium. Three 
new vegetable alkalies have also been discovered, called morphia, picrotoxine, and vanqueline. 
Clay, as it exists in soils is commonly called argillaceous earth, and lime in soils is called 
calcareous earth. 

Acids and Salts. The name acid, in the language of chemists, 
has been given to all substances, whether liqiiids or solids, which pro- 
duce that sensation on the tongue which we call sour. Most of the 
acids owe their origin to the combination of certam substances with 
oxygen; and they have the property of changing the blue, green, and 
purple vegetables to red, and of combining with alkalies, earths, and me- 
tallic oxydes, so as to compose the compounds termed salts. The acids 
were formerly divided mto three classes, mineral, vegetable, and animal; 
but the more useful and scientific way of dividing them,is into two classes 
only. The undecomposible acids, and those which are formed with 
two principles, are comprised in the first class; while those acids which 
are formed with more than two principles compose the second class. 
Sulphuric acid, in commerce called oil of vitriol, is procured by burn- 
ing sulphur in contact with some substance containing oxygen, and 
becomes acidified. That peculiar acid which is called muriatic is usu- 
ally obtained from muriate of soda, which is the chemacal name of 
com.mon salt. Carbonic acid is a combination of carbon and oxygen, 
formerly called fixed air, on account of its being intimately combined 
in chalk, brimstone, and other substances. (See also the article car- 
bonic acid gas.) The number of acids that are well known amount 
to more than 40, and their uses are so many and important, that it is 
impossible to name them. They are indispensable to various arts and 
manufactures; they are employed for culinary purposes, and for med- 
icine; they act an important part in the great laboratory of nature and 
form a great proportion of the mountainous districts of the globe in 
their various combinations. The precise number of the salts is not 
Imown, but they probably amount to more than two thousand. The 
different salts are known from each other by the peculiar figure of their 
crystals, by their taste, and other distinctive or specific characters. 
Their crystahzation is owing to the abstraction of the heat or water by 
Avhich they were displaced. Crystalized salts are liable to changes in 
their appearance by exposure to the atmosphere. Some have so 
great an affinity for water, that they absorb it with avidity from the 
atmosphere, and thus becoming moist or liquid they are said to deli- 
quence. Others having less affinity for water than atmospheric air 
has, lose their water or crystahzation by exposure, and readily fall into 
powder. Such salts are said to effloresce. 3alts have not only the 



property of dissolving in water, but by exposure to great heat they wilt 
melt; and they require different degrees of heat to put them into a 
state of fusion, as well as different quantities of water for their solu- 
tion. Many of the salts are to be found native, and the carbonates, 
sulphates, and the luuriates, are the most frequent. Chalk, limestone, 
and marble, are all included in the term carbonate of lime. Few salts 
are more copiousiy disseminated than the sulphate of lime, particularly 
in the city of Paris, and hence its name, plaster of Paris. Of the na- 
tive muriates, muriate of lime occurs with rock salt, and muriate of 
magnesia occurs in abundance in sea water; and muriate of soda not 
only exists in immense quantities in the ocean, but vast mountains in 
different parts of the world, are entirely formed of this salt. Nitrato 
of potash, known by the more famihar name of nitre, or salt petre, is 
collected in various parts of the globe. Phosphate of lime which is 
the basis of animal bones, exists native in Hungary, and composes 
several entire mountains in Spain. Mountains of salt were probably 
formed in very remote ages, and by processes of which we can form 
110 idea. It may be supposed, however, that the changes have been 
slow and gradual; for several of the native salts exhibit marks of reg- 
ularity and beauty in their crystalization, v/hich cannot be imitated by 
art. 

CHAPTER YL 

Simple Combustibles* Most of the simple substances are com*- 
bustible, or bear some relation to combustion. Light and caloric are 
evolved during combustion. Oxygen is the principal agent; and hy- 
drogen, sulphur, phosphorus, carbon, and the metals are the subjects, 
or instruments of this process. Hydrogen gas may be combined with 
water, sulphur, phosphorus or carbon. When combined with phos- 
phorus it forms phosphuretted hydrogen gas, which takes fire when it 
«omes in contact mth atmospheric air. The elastic substance called 
"carburetted hydrogen gas, is carbon dissolved in hydrogen, it has also 
been called heavy inflammable air. It is this gaseous compound 
which has occasioned so many dreadful accidents to miners, who call 
it fire damp. It is procured from pit coal by dry distillation, and from 
its inflammability and brilliant flame, it has been used for lighting 
streets, shops, manufactories and light houses on the sea coast. The 
rate at which it is obtained is comparatively trifling compared with oil 
and tallow. 

Phosphorus is a solid inflammable substance, which burns at a very 
low temperature when in contact vrith oxygen gas or atmospheric air. 
Many amusing experiments can be performed with it; but it must be 
handled with extreme caution. If you fix a piece of solid phosphorus 
in a quill, and write with it upon paper, the ^vTiting in a dark room will 
appear beautifully luniinous. If the face or hands be rubbed with 
phosphuretted ether, they will appear in a dark place as though on fire, 
without danger or sensation of heat. Pure carbon is known only in 
the diamond; but carbon in a state of charcoal may be procured by 
heating to redness a piece of wood closely covered with sand in a cru- 
cible, so as to preserve it while in the fire, and afterwards, while cool- 
ing, from the action of the atmosphere. It is capable of forming va- 
rious combinations, but charcoal is that with which we arc most famil- 



16 THE- ARTIST AXD. 

iar. Carbon is not only a component part, but it forms nearly tlio 
vv'hole of the solid basis of all vegetables, from the most delicate flow- 
er in the garden, to the huge oak of the forest. It not only consti- 
tutes the basis of the woody fibre, but is a component part of sugar, 
and of all kinds of wax, oils, gums, and resins, and of these again how 
great is the variety! It is imagined .that most of the metals may be 
combined Vvith carbon; but at present we know of only its combina- 
tion with. iron. In one proportion it forms cast-iron, in another steel, 
and in a third plumbago, generally, though improperly, called black 
lead. There is no lead in its composition. Cast iron contains about 
one forty-fifth of its weight of carbon. Steel is combined with about 
one part of carbon in two hundred of iron, and plumbago, or carburet 
of kon, has been found to consist of nearly nine parts of carbon to 
one of iron. Wrought iron differs from cast iron, in being deprived 
of its carbon and oxygen, by continued heat and repeated hammering, 
which renders the metal malleable. Steel is made of wiought iron, by 
various processes, whereby the metal resiimes a small portion of the 
carbon, and acquires a capacity of receiving different degrees of hard- 
ness. The metals are generally procured from beneath the surface 
of the earth, in a state of combination either with other metals, or with 
sulphur, oxygen or acids; though a few of them have been found in 
a state of purity. Metals are the great agents by which we can ex- 
amine the recesses of nature; and their uses are so multipUed, that 
they have become of the gi-eatest importance in every occupation of 
life. They are the instruments of all our improvements, of civilization 
itself, and are even subservient to the progress of the human mind 
towards perfection. They differ so much from each other, that nature 
seems to have had in view all the necessities of man, in order that she 
might suit every possible purposte his ingenuity can invent or his wants 
require. We not only receive this great variety from the hand of na- 
ture, but these metals are rendered infinitely valuable by various oth- 
er properties which they possess; — by their combustibility, their solu- 
bility in fluids, their Combinations Vvith various substances, and by their 
union with each other, whereby compounds and alloys are formed, ex- 
tremely useful in a variety of arts, manufactures, and other requisites 
of life. By combining them with oxygen we can invest them with neto 
properties, and are enabled to employ them to promote the progress of 
the fine arts, by imitating the master pieces of creation in the produc- 
tion of artificial salts, gems, and chr}^stals. of every colour and of eve^ 
ry shade. 

The following is an enumeration of the classification of the simple bodies in general. 

1, Comprehending the imponderable agents, Heat cr Caloric, Light, and Eleetrtcity, 
II. Comprehending agents capable of uniting with inflammable bodies, and in most instan- 
ces of effecting their combustion, — Oxygen, Choliae, and Iodine. Many learned chemists 
have doubted whether chorine and iodine were supporters of combustion, any fiulher than 
they contain oxygen- They are classed among the simple bodies, because they have not as 
yet, been resolved into other ingredients. The name chorine is simply expressive of ils 
greenish colour, and iodine of its violet colour. 111. Comprehending bodies capable of uiii- 
ling vvith oxygen, and foj-ming with its various compounds, — 2. Hydrogen, forming water. 

2. Bodies forming acids. JSitrogen, forming nitric acid, Sulphur, forming sulphuric acid, 
Phosphorus, forming phosphoric acid, Carbon, forming carbonic acid, Boron, forming bo- 
ric acid, Fluorine, forming fluoric acid. 3. Metallic bodies which have been divided into 
The seven followmg classes. 1st. The metals which combme with oxygen and form alkalies. 
These are potassium, sodium and lithium. The volatile alkali ammonia has been found by 
Sir Humprhey Davy to be a triple compound of nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygep. 20. Those 
laetals v/hicb by combining with oxygen form the alkalii:e earths; viz. calcium, magnesium. 



tradesman's guide* If 

herlum and strontium. Calcium is the base of lime, magnesium of magnesia, auS so on. 
The metallic substances are of the colour of silver. 30. Those metals which by combinin.? 
with oxygen constitute the remainder of the earths. These are silicum, alumium, zirco- 
nium, glucinum, gitrium and thorinum. These are presumed metals; for the earths, of 
which they are supposed to constitute the bases, have been as yet but partially decompo?'cd; 
respecting some of them but little is krpwn. 4th. The metals which absorb oxygen and de- 
Compose water at a high temperature. These are iron, tin, zinc, cadmium and maihgah- 
ese. 5th. Those metals which absorb oxygen at different temperatures, but do not decom- 
pose water at any temperature. This class is composed of twelve distinct metals, viz. os- 
mium, cerium, tellurium, titanium, uranium, nickel, cobalt, copper, lead, antimony, 
bizmuth and mercury. 6th. Those metals vwhich do not decompose water, but absorb ox- 
ygen and thereby convert it into acids. These are arsenic, molybdenum, tungsten, chro- 
mium, columbium and selenium. 7th. Thos-e metals which do not decompose water, nor 
absorb oxygen from the atmosphere at any temperature. These are platina, gold, siher, 
palladium^ rhodium and iridium. 

'■ OxYDEs AND CoMBUsTioN. Any metal or combustible body, 
which is combined with less oxygen than is sufficient to render it acid, 
is usually called an oxyde. Whenever a substance is converted into 
an oxyde, we say it is oxydized. The mineral, the animal, and vege- 
table kingdoms, all furnish matters which are convertible into oxydes 
by an union with oxygen. Metallic oxydes are formed in several 
ways, the chief of which are by the access of atmospheric air^ by the 
decomposition of water, and by the decomposition of acids. Iron 
may be mentioned as a familiar example of metals becoming oxydiz- 
ed by atmospheric air. It is well known that when this metal is exposed 
to air and moisture it acquires. rust, or in other words its surface is 
converted to an oxyde, in which state, the metal will be found to have 
acquired an increase of weight. Common red lead, which is a true 
oxyde of lead, is made by melting that metal in ovens so constructed 
as to have a free access to atmospheric air. Gold, silver and plati- 
na, cannot be oxydized, unless in a very high temperature ; and with 
respect to other metals, they not only differ in their capacity for oxy- 
gen, but also their attraction for it, so that one will often rob the other, 
thus reducing the first oxyde to its primitive metallic form. If you 
dissolve some quicksilver in nitric acid, and after dropping a little of 
the solution upon a bright piece of copper, gently rub it with a piece 
of cloth, the mercury will precipitate itself upon the copper, which 
■vvill be completely silvered. With regard to the oxyde of nitrogen, 
the first degree of oxydizement produces nitrous oxyde ; a further por- 
tion of oxygen, nitric oxyde, and they are both in a state of gas. Ni- 
trous oxyde gas bears the nearest resemblance of any other to that of 
the atmospheric air. It will support combustion even better than com- 
mon air ; it is respirable for a short time, and it is absorbed by water. 
Persons who have inhaled this gas have felt sensations similar to that 
produced by intoxication. In some people it produces involuntary 
muscular motion, and a propensity to leaping and running, in others^ 
involuntary fits of laughter; and in all high spirits, and the most exqisitely^ 
pleasurable sensations, without any subsequent feelings of debility .^ 
(It is readily procured by exposing chrystals of nitrate of ammonia, in 
a retort to the heat of a lamp, by which means the ammoniacal salt r? 
decomposed, and this gas is evolved.) Combustion may be defined 
to be a process by which certain substances decompose oxygen gas, 
absorb its base and suffer its caloric to escape in the state of sensible 
heat. The agency of oxygen in combustion i^ attributable to its af- 
finity for combustibfc bodies. The combustible having a greater affini- 

G 



■^ 



* i§ • THE ARTIST AisD 

ty to oxygen than the oxygen has to caloric, the oxygen gas is dc'^ 
composed, and its oxygen combines with the ignited body, which is 
caloric, becoming free, is diftused among the surrounding bodies. 
Whenever we burn a combustible body, a continued stream of atmos- 
pheric air flows towards the fire place, to occupy the vacancy left by 
the air that has undergone decomi*)sition, and wliich, in its turn, be- 
comes decomposed also. Hence a supply of caloric is furnished with- 
out intermission, till the whole of the combustible is saturated with 
oxygen. As the combustible burns, light is disengaged, and the more 
subtile parts, now converted by caloric into gas, are dissipated in that 
state. When the combustion is over, nothing remains but the earthy 
parts of the combustible, and that portion which is converted by the 
process, into an oxyde or an acid. The smoke which arises from a com- 
mon fire is chiefly water in the state of vapour, with a mixture of car- 
buretted hydrogen and bituminous substances ; part of the water comes 
from the moisture of the fuel ; and the other part is formed during com- 
bustion, by the union of the hydrogen of the combustible with the oxy- 
gen of the atmosphere. The agency of oxygen in combustion may 
be demonstrated by placing a lighted candle under a glass vessel m- 
verted upon a plate of water. It will be seen that the candle will go 
out as soon as it has consumed all the oxygen contained in the inclu- 
ded air, and that the water will rise up in the vessel to fill the vacancy. 
> In the decomposition of atmospheric air by combustion, it is natural to 
ask, what becomes of the nitrogen gas ? As the oxygen becomes fix- 
ed in the^combustible body, its caloric is disengaged, a part of which 
combines with the nitrogen, and carries it off* in the form of rarified 
nitrogen gas. When bodies are burnt, none of their principles are 
destroyed. We have reason to think that every particle of matter is 
indestructible, and that the process of combustion merely decomposes 
the body, and sets its several component parts at liberty, to separate 
from each other, to form other new and varied combinations. It was 
said of old, that the Creator weighed the dust and measured the water, 
when he made the world. The' first quantity is here still ; and though 
man can gather and scatter, move, mix and unmix, yet he can destroy 
nothing; the dissolution of one thing is a preparation for the bemg, 
and the bloom, and the beauty of another. Something gathers up all 
the fragments and nothing is lost. 

CHAPTER VH. 

i^LECTRiciT Y. The surfacc of the earth, and of all the bodies with 
which we are acquainted, is supposed to contain or possess a power of 
exciting or exhibiting a certain quantity of an exceedingly subtile agent, 
called the electric fluid or power. The quantity usually belonging to 
any surface, is called its natural share, and then it produces no sensi- 
ble effects ; but when any surface becomes possessed of more, or of 
less than its natural quantity, it is electrified, and it then exhibits a va- 
riety of pecuhar and surprising phenomena, ascribed to the power cal- 
led electric. All those bodies which transmit or conduct electricity 
' from one surface to another, are called conductors, and those sur- 
faces which will not transmit the electric power, are called electrics or 
hon-conductors. The general class of ^conductors comprehends me= 



TRADESilAN's GUIDE. • 19 

tais, ores, and fluids, in their natural state, except air and oils. Vitri- 
fied and resinous sul)stances, amber, sulphur, wax, silk, cotton, and 
feathers arc electrics or nonconductors. — Many of these, such as 
glass, resin and air, become conductors by being heated. When a 
surface is supposed to have more than its natui*kl quantity of this fluid, 
it is said to be ijositively electrifyW, and when less than its natural 
share, to be negatively electrified. A\henany electrified conductor is 
wholly surrounded by non-conductors, so that the electric fluid cannot 
pass from it along conductors to the earth, it is said to be insulated. 
The human body is a good conductor of electricity ; but if a person 
stand on a cake of resin, or on a stool supported by glass legs, the 
ectric fluid cannot pass from him to the earth, and if he is touched 
by another person standing on the ground, a sparkhng appearance and 
noise will be exhibited. Two surfaces, both positively or both nega- 
tively electrified, repel each other; and two substances, of which one 
is positively and the other negatively electrified, attract each other. 
Opposite electricities always accompany each other, for if any surface 
become positive, the surface with which it is rubbed becomes nega- 
tive ; and if any surface be rendered positive, the nearest conducting 
surface will become negative. When one side of a cor? J«c/or receives 
the electric fluid its whole surface is instantly pervaded ; but w hen an 
electric or non conductor is presented to an electrified body, it be- 
comes electrified on a small spot only. If to one side of a pane of 
glass you communicate positive electricity, the opposite side will be- 
come negatively electrified, and the plate is then said to be charged. 
These electricities cannot come together, unless a communication, by 
means of conductors, is made between the sides of the glass ; and if 
their union be made through the human body, it produces an aflTection 
of the nerves called an electric shock. As the excitation which is 
produced by rubbmg with the hand on a tube or plate of glass, is not 
only very laborious, but inadequate to the production of any material 
quantity of electric fluid, machines have been constructed of various 
forms for this purpose. — Some of the experiments which may be made 
with an electrical machine are necessary for illustrating the laws of 
electricity, and others are merely entertaining. If the inside of a glass 
tumbler be electirified by presenting it to a pointed wire, extending 
from the prime conductor, and then placed over a few pitch balls laid 
upon a table, the balls will immediately begin to leap up along the sides 
of the glass, and then back on the table ; — they are attracted and repelled 
by the electrified inside surface of the glass, the electricity of which 
they gradually conduct to the table. If a person having long hair, not 
tied up, be placed upon an insulated stand, and, by means of a chain, 
be connected with the prime conductor, when the machine is put in 
motion, the hairs on his head, by repelling each other, will stand out 
in a most surprising manner. A piece of sponge, filled with water, 
and hung to the conductor, when electrified in a dark room, exhibits a 
most beautiful appearance. If a piecfe of sealing wax be fastened to 
a wire, and the wire be fixed into the end of the conductor, and the 
wax lighted, the moment the machme is worked, the wax will fly oflT 
in the finest threads imaginable. Take a,two ounce phial, half full of 
olive oil, pass a slender wire through the cork, and let the end of it be so 
bent as to touch the glass just below the surface of the oil; then place 



2ta HUE ARTIST AND 

^m thunib ©ppasite the point of the wire in the phial, and, if in that 
position, you take a spark from the charged conductor, the spark, in 
order to reach your thumb, ^vill actually perforate the glass. In this 
way holes may be made all round the phial. — Substances should be 
warmed and experiments made when the wind is northerly^ and the at- 
mosphere dry, to produce the best effect. 

By means of the Leyden Phial, a hundred persons may receive a 
shock at the same instant, and electric fluid, on the same principle, 
might be conveyed many miles in a moment of time. The electric 
fluid may be made to appear in the form of a vivid flash, accompanied 
vrith a loud report, with this phial. But the greatesf discovery that 
was ever made in electricity, was reserved for Br. Franklin, of Ameri- 
ca. Franklin brought the supposition that a similarity existed be- 
tween lightning and the electric fluid to the test, and proved the truth 
of it by means of a boy's lute covered with a silk handkerchief instead 
ef paper, and some wire fastened in the upper part, which served to 
collect and conduct the fluid. When he raised this machine into the 
atmosphere, he drew electric fluid from the passing clouds, which de- 
s'eended through the flaxen string of the kite, as a conductor, and was 
afterwards drawn from an iron key, which he tied to the line at a small 
distance from his hand; from this experiment originated the formation 
of a conductor to secure buildings from the effects of Hghtning. 

When aqueous vapour is condensed, the clouds formed are usually 
more or less electrical, and the earth below them being brought into an 
opposite state, a discharge takes place, when the clouds approach with- 
in a certain distance, constituting lightning, and the collapsing of the 
air, Avhich is rarified in the electric circuit, is the cause of the thunder, 
which is more or less intense, and of longer or shorter duration, ac- 
cording to the quantity of the air acted upon, and the distance of the 
place where the report is heard from the point of the discharge. 

Galvanism. Galvanism is another -mode of exciting electricity. 
In electricity the effects are chiefly produced by mechanical action, but 
the effects of Galvanism are produced by the chemical action of bodies 
upon each other. When it was observed, that common electricity, even 
that of lightning, produced vivid convulsions in the limbs of recently 
killed animals, it was ascertained that metallic substances, by mere 
contact, under particular chcumstances, excited similar commotions. 
It was found essential that the forces of metals employed should be of 
different kinds. Apply one piece of m.etal to the nerve of the part, 
and the other to the muscle, and afterwards connect the metals, either 
by bringing them together, or connecting them by an arch of metallic 
substance ; every time this connexion is formed, a convulsion takes 
place. The greatest muscular contractions are found to be produced 
by zine, silver, and gold. A person maybe made sensible of this kind 
of electric action by the following experiments. If he place a piece 
of one metal, as a half crown above, and a piece of some other metal, 
as zine, below his tongue, by bringing the outer edge of these pieces in 
contact, he will perceive a peculiar taste, and in the dark vvll see a 
flash of hght. If he put a slip of tin foil upon the bulb of one of his 
eyes, and a piece of silver in his mouth, by causing these pieces to 
communicate, in a dark place a faint flash will appear before his eyes. 
G&lvani Apposed that the virtues of this new agent resided in the 



tradesman's guide. 21 

nerves of the animal, but Volta showed that the phenomena did not 
depend on the organs of the animal, but upon the electrical agency of 
the metals, which is excited by the moisture of the animal, whose or- 
gans wero only a delicate test of the presence of electric influence. 
The conductors of the galvanic fluid are divided into the perfect, 
which consist of metallic substances and charcoal, and imperfect, 
which are water and oxydated fluids, as the acids and all the 
subtances that contain these fluids. To render the Galvanic, or 
more properly, the Voltaic power sensible, the combination must con- 
sist of three conductors of the different classes. When^two of the three 
conductors are of the first class, the combination is said to be of the 
first order ; v/hen otherwise, it is said to be of the second order. If a 
piece of zinc be laid upon a piece of copper, and upon the copper* a 
piece of flannel, moistened with a solution of salt water, a circ/e of the 
first class is forined ; and then, if three other pieces be laid on these in 
the same order, and repeated several times, the whole will form a pile 
or battery of the first order. The effects md,y be increased to any de- 
gree iSy a repetition of the same simple combination. The following 
is a cheap and easy method of constructing a Voltaic pile. Cast 20 
or 30 pieces of zinc, of the size of a cent ; take as many cents and as 
many pieces oif paper or woollen cloth cut in the same shape, and dip 
in a solution of salt arid water. In building the pile, place a piece of 
zinc, wet paper, the superabundant v/ater being pressed out, after which 
the copper ; then zinc, paper, and copper, and so on, until the whole is 
finished. The sides of the pile may be suppported with rods of glass, or 
varnished wood fixed in the board on which it is built. Having wet 
both hands touch the lower part of the pile with one hand, and the up- 
per part with the other, constant little shocks of electricity will be felt 
until one hand be removed. If the hand be brought back, a similar 
repetition of shocks will be experienced. Hold a silver spoon in one 
liand, and touch with it the battery in the lower part, then touch the up- 
per part with the tongue ; the bitter taste is extreme. If the end of the 
spoon be put under the eyebrow, close to the ball of the eye, a sensa- 
tion will be felt like the burning of red hot iron, ^but which ceases the 
instant the spoon is removed. The plates will soon become oxydated, 
and require cleaning in order to make them act. 

CHAPTER Vni. 

LIGHT. 

Light is derived from the sun in the solar system. This is called 
solar or celestial light. It is also derived from terrestrial objects; as 
from combustion, friction, ch^niical attraction, &c. which is called 
terrestrial light. It is generally accom.panied with caloric. Every 
ray of common light contains in itself seven diflferent kinds; these 
may be best separated by a triangular glass prism, but the same ope- 
ration may be performed with a tumbler of water. The seven kinds 
of light differ in two remarkable characteristics; they are of different 
colours, and degrees of refrangibility; viz. red, orange, yellow, green, 
blue, indigo and violet. The red is least refrangible; the violet most; 
and the intermediates vary in their degree of refrangibility according 
to this order of succession. . The different colouring of bodies de- 



22 , • THE ARTIST AND 

pends on the different kinds of light which they reflect to the eye. 
White bodies reflect all kinds of hght; black, reflect none: the dif- 
ferent lands, according to the aiTangenient of the constituent atoms 
of bodies reflecting them, not according to the natme of those bodies. 

Example 1. Prepaie the following solutions: 1. Sugar of lead dis- 
solved, 1 to 50 of water per weight. 2. Pearlash, 1 to 4 of water. 3. 
Corrosive sublimate, 1 to 30 of water. 4. Copperas, 1 to 6 of water. 
o. Sulphuric acid, 1 to 12 of water. 6. 1 to 100 of water. 7. 
Strong liquid of ammonia. 8. Tincture of red cabbage. 9. Tinc- 
ture of galls. 10. Prusiate of potash. 11 . Nitrate of mercury, made 
of 1 of mercury to 4 of nitric acid, to which add twice as much water. 
By mixing these liquids we make red — 1 of 5 wth 1 of 8. Orange, 
4 of 3 with 1 of 2; limpid with 1 of 5. Yellow, 4 of 11 with 
1 of 2. Green, 3 of 8 with 1 of 2; ruby red, with 1 of 5. Blue, 
3 of 6 mth.l of 7; limpid with 1 of 5. Indigo, 1 of 4 with 1 of 10. 
Violet, add the red to the indigo. White, mix 3 of 1 with 1 of 2. 
Black, 3 of 9 with 1 of 4; limpid with 1 of 5. 

These liquids either reflect different colours before they are mixed, 
from those which they reflect afterwards, or reflect no colour as some 
of them are limpid. It follows as a necessary conclusion, that colour- 
ing is not inherent in matter, but depends on the peculiar arrangement 
of the constituent atoms. As colours are changed by the various ap- 
plications of the laws of chemical aflEinity, dyers, limners, &c. ought 
to be well acquainted with them. 

Example 2. Rub two pieces of white quartz slightly together in the 
dark, and they will become luminous. 

There are other bodies which absorb and give off" light, as rotten 
wood, putrid fish, some artificial preparations, &c. Snow absorbs 
light by day, which it gives off" at night — thus light is radiated from 
many substances, which seem not to belong to the class of luminous 
bodies. The particles of light are so extremely minute, that although 
they are projected in different directions, and cross each other, yet 
they are never known to interfere, or impede each others course. It 
is still a disputed point, however, Avhether light be a substance com- 
posed of particles like other bodies. In some respects it is obedient 
to the laws which govern bodies; in others it appears independent of 
them: thus, though its course is guided by the laws of motion, it 
does not seem to be influenced by the laws of gravity. It has never 
been discovered to have weight, though a variety of interesting experi- 
ments have been made in order to ascertain that point. Some have 
supposed that the rays of hght, instead of being particles, consist of the 
undulations of an elastic medium, whic|i fills all space, and which 
produces the sensation of light in the eye, just as the vibrations of 
the air produce the sensation of sound to the ear. Most of the 
phenomena may be accounted for by either hypothesis; but that of 
their being particles applies more happily to some of the facts re- 
specting the modifications of light by refraction and reflection. Twi-^ 
light is occasioned partly by refraction, but chiefly by reflection of 
the sun's "rays by the atmosphere, and it lasts till the sun is eighteen 
degrees below the horizon. Were no atmosphere to reflect and re- 
fract the sun's rays, only that part of the heavens would be luminous 
in which the sun is placed; p.nd if we could live without air, and 



1 



tradesman's guide. • 23 ' 

should turn our backs to tlie sun, the whole heavens wo\ild appear as . 
dark as in the night. In this case also, a sudden transition from the * 
brightest sunshine to dark night, would immediately take place upoE * 
the setting of the sun. 

CHAPTER IX. 

Oxygen Gas — Vital Jlir. Put a quantity of oxymuriate of potash 
into a small glass retort, to which is adapted a bent tube to collect the 
gas, and which passes beneath a bell glass filled with water; the retort 
is gradually heated; the air in the apparatus is expelled, the salt 
melts, is decomposed, and we obtain albthe oxygen that enters into 
jfBie composition of chloric acid and the potash — there remains in the 
retort a chlorulet of potassium. One hundred grains of the oxymu- 
riate, yields thirty-nine grains of oxygen gas. 

Tlie Atmosphere, is composed of two distinct substances, termed oxygen and nitrogen 
gas. It is not a chemical compound, but a mere mixture of these gaseous substances in 
ihc proportion of 21 of the former and 79 of the latter. It contains, also, about one part in 
every thousand^of carbonic acid gas, a considerable portion of water in a state of elastic vapour, 
and several adventitious substances. Oxygen is an element, or simple substance generally 
diffused through nature, though like caloric it does not eyist by itself. It takes its name from 
two Greek words Eignifylng that which produces or generates acids, because one of its^ general 
properties is to form acids by combining with different substances, which are called the bases 
of the several acids. Its ditfereTit combinations are essential to animal hfe and combustion, 
^cted upon or combined with caloric it becomes ox!ygen gas, which is distinguished from all 
other gaseous matter by several important properties. Inflammable substances burn in it, 
under the same circumstances as in common air, but with vastly greater vividness. If a 
taper, the flame of which has been extinguished, the wick only remaining ignited, be plunged 
into a bottle filled with it, the flame will instantly be rekindled, and be very brilliant, and 
accompanied -.by a crackling noise. If a steel wire, or thin file, ha\'ing a sharp point, armed 
with a bit of wood in a state of inflammation be introduced into a jar filled with the gas, the 
steel will take fire, and its combustion will continue, producing a most brilliant phenomenon. 
Oxygen gas is a little heavier than atmospheric air, and from its being absolutely necessary to 
the support of animal life, has been called vital air. 

Nitrogen Gas. Phosphorus is inflamed in a given quantity of 
air — this gives up all its oxygen and the nitrogen is set free. For this 
purpose we set on fire a small bit of phosphorus, placed on a brick, 
which has been previous fixed on the shelf of a pneumatic trough, and 
which ought to be so elevated, that the phosphorus may be above 
the water in the trough, and, of course, in contact with the air. 
As soon as the phosphorus is inflamed, it should be covered with a 
large bqll-glass full of atmospheric air, which dips into the water of the 
trough — the phosphorus, now in contact only with the air of the ves- 
sel, robs it of all its oxygen, forms phosphoric acid, v/hich we see under 
the appearance of a very dense cloud, and a great amount of caloric 
and light is extricated ; the air dilated by the heat which is produced, 
partly escapes in large bubbles : at the expiration of one or two mi- 
nutes, the phosphorus goes out, and the process is terminated. The 
apparatus is left in the same situation, and the water is seen to rise in 
the bell-glass until this is cool ; the phosphoric acid is completely dis- 
solved, and the interior of the apparatus, before nebulous and very 
opaque, regains its transparency. The nitrogen gas, which remains 
above the water, ought to be shaken sometimes with that fluid to re- 
move any phosphoric acid it may retain, and particularly to decompose 
a portion of phosphuretted nitrogen gas which always is formed in the 
process, and which, thus agitated, abandons the phosphorus. Very 



24 THE ARTIST AND 

pure nitrogen gas can be obtained by passing a stream of chlorine o^as 
through liquid ammonia inclosed in a bottle. 

Nitrogen is a substance diffused tlirough nature, and particularly in animal bodies* It is 
not to be found in a solid or liquid state; but combined with caloric, it lorms nitrogen, or as 
the French chemists call it on account of its being so destructive of life, azotic gas, in which 
no animal can breathe, or any combus_tibIe burn. It is uninflammable and somewhat lighter 
than atmospheric air, and though by itself it is so noxious to animals, it answers an important 
end, when mixed with oxygen gas in atmospheric air. Were knot for this large quantity of 
nitrogen in the atmosphere, the stimulating power of the oxygen would cause the blood to 
flow with too great rapidity through the vessels; the consequence of which would be, thai 
the life of man would not be protracted to the length it now is. The veribilion colour'of the 
blood is owing to the inhalation of oxygen gas. When the dark purple blood of the veins 
arrives at the lungs, it imbibes the vital air of the atmosphere, which changes its dark colour 
to a brilliant red, rendering it the spur to the action of the heart and arteries, the source of an- 
imal heat, and the cause of sensibility, irritability and motion. With regard to the nitrogen 
that is combined with atmospheric air, the greatest part of it is thrown out of the lungs at 
every respiration, and it rises above the head, that a fresh portion of air may be taken in, and 
that the same air may not be repeatedly breathed. The leaves of trees and other vegetables 
give out during the day a large portion of oxygen gasj which, uniting with the nitrogen thrown 
off by animal respiration, keeps up the equilibrium, and preserves the purity of the atmo- 
sphere. In the dark, plants absorb oxygen, but the proportion is small compared to what 
they exhale by day. 

Hydrogen Gas. Put a quantity of filings of zinc into a vessel 
which has a glass tube adapted to it, and pour upon them sulphuric 
acid, (oil of vitriol) diluted with six or eight times the quantity of wa- 
ter — an effervescence will immediately take place — the oxygen of it 
will immediately become united to the metal, and the hydroge i gas 
will be disengaged, and may be conveyed by the glass tube into any 
proper receiver. While it is rushing through the tube it may be kin- 
dled with a taper^ and it wdll burn Tvith a long flame like a candle. 

Hydrogen gas is only one fourteenth the weight of atmospheric air, 
and occupies a space 1500 times greater than it possessed in its 
aqueous combination. It is continually emitting from vegetable and 
animal matter during their decay, and is evolved from various mines, 
volcanoes and other natural sources. From its great levity it has 
been used to fill air balloons. In the burning of the gas, the hydro- 
gen unites with the oxygen of the atmosphere, and the result of the 
combination is flame and water. It has been supposed that torrents 
of rain, which generally accompany thunder storms may arise from a 
sudden combustion of hydrogen and oxygen gases by means of hght- 
ning. Hydrogen was the base of the gas which was formerly called 
inflammable air, and when m the aeriform state is the lightest of all 
ponderable things. 

Hydrogen gas is procured by decomposing water by the galvanic 
battery; in this case it is extremely pure. It is also largely procured 
by decomposing the vapour of water made to pass over iron filings, or 
wire in a gun barrel. 

Nitrous Oxyde Gas. (See chapter vh) 

Phosphuretted Hydrogen' Gas. Take a tin quart basin — 
make an inch hole through the bottom — have a tm quart decanter with 
straight sides, let the mouth be soldered to the under side of the basing 
so that it may fit the hole in the basin — now introduce through the 
hole in the basin, into the decanter, dry newly slacked lime, two parts 
mixed with one part of dry pearlashes, occasionally pouring in a little 
cold water, just sufficient for a thin paste, until it is nearly filled to 
the bottom of the basin — drop in two inches of a stick of phosphorus, 
cut into smal! pieces— stir the whole so as to mix all parts thoroughly 



# 



trades31a.n's guide. 25 

—set the decanter part on coals, or suspend it over a lamp^ — raise a 
moderate heat: before the mass is to a boiling heat bubbles of the gas 
will appear in the neck and explode ; — now fill the neck with water, 
and lay on the mouth a piece of lead about two inches in diameter 
with a hole in the centre about the size of a pipe stem. Fill up the 
basin with cold water, which must be occasionally changed, by dip- 
ping out when it becomes too warm. Bubbles of gas will rise to the 
fop of the water, explode, and form an ascending corona or wreath, 
but they will sometimes spread over the surface, appearing very 
small. Break off the foot of aavine-glass and use it as a receiver for 
collecting and turning up large bubbles, and for transferring'gases in- 
a cistern. 



>y tnis experiment v.-e are lurnisnea wiin an exniuiuon resemuiing wnai is sometimes 
Jack o' the lantern, frequently seen in damp grounds, where animals are putrifyiag. 

Carbonic Acid Gas. This is more destructive of life than any 
other, and it extinguishes flame instantaneously. Water may be made 
by pressure, to absorb three times it bulk of this gas, by which it ac- 
quires an acidulous and not unpleasant taste. Soda water, cyder, and 
other fermented hquors owe their briskness and sparkling to the pres- 
sure of this gas. Fatal accidents often happen from the burning of 
charcoal in chambers, for wherever charcoal is burned, this gas is al- 
ways formed. It so often occupies the bottom of wells that work- 
men ought not to venture into such places without prviously letting 
down a lighted candle — if the candle burns they may enter it with safe- 
ty ; if not, a quantity of quicklime should be let down in buckets, and 
gradually sprinkled with water. As the lime slacks it will absorb the 
gas, and the workmen may afterwards descend in safety. 

Pulverize a piece of marble — put a wine-glass full into a retort — 
pour on it a gill of water — when it has soaked a minute, pour in slow- 
ly half a wine-glass of sulphuric acid, diluted with about five times as 
much water : the carbonic acid will come over in the state of gas, and 
can be collected in any receiver placed on a shelf of the cistern. On 
this principle the carbonic acid for making acidulous waters, impro- 
perly called soda water, is obtained. 

. Pass some of the gas into a decanter of pure cold water, and agi- 
tate it until the water and gas are well mixed ; pour into a wine-glass 
of it some of the blue infusion of red cabbage, and it will become a 
very hght red colour. The infusion ought rather to be greenish when 
put in, by having added to it an extremely small quantity of an alkali 
before it is used, otherwise the change in colour made by the acidulous 
water will hardly be perceived. Carbonated waters, called soda wa- 
ters- are made upon this principle. The waters, sold under the name 
of soda waters, as prepared generally, contain both sulphurous acid 
and muriatic acid. Chalk is commonly used, which contains general- 
ly a little of the muriate of soda — this being decomposed, furnishes 
muriatic acid — it is impossible to avoid a little mixture of sulphuric 
acid, used in the process. To cleanse the gas from these deleterious 
impurities, prepare the gas and force it through a condenser, cdntain- 
ing a small quantity of water, before the water for use is introduced. 
Carbonated water, containing but about thrice its bulk of the gas, used 
with the syrups comnionly employed makes an excellent table drink itt 
hot weather. * 

C 



2ia 



THE ARTIST ANt> 



Sulphurous Acid Gas. Put into a glass retort, t^vo parts of sui^^^ 
phuric acid, and one of mercury, and apply the heat of a lamp ; the 
mixture effervesces, and a gas issues from the beak of the retort, 
which may be received in glass jars filled with mercury, and standing 
in a mercurial trough. In this process, the mercury in the retort com- 
bines with the oxygen of the sulphuric acid ; and the sulphuric acid, 
having lost a certain portion of its oxygen, is converted into sulphur- 
ous acid. This gas is very abundant in the environs of volcanoes. 
It was the vapour of sulphurous acid which suffocated Pliny, the natu- 
ralist, in that eruption of Vesuvius by which Herculaneum was swal- 
lowed up, in the year of Christ, 79. — It is composed of 68 parts sul- 
phur and 32 parts oxygen. 

Sulphurous acid gas is produced by the slow combustion of sul- ' 
phur. If this gas be received in water the gas combines with it, and 
sulphurous acid will be the result. Water at 40° absorbs one third 
of its weight of sulplmrous acid gas. 

Sulphurous acid possesses very slight acid properties. Instead of 
changing vegetable blues to red, as acids generally do, it invariably 
renders them white. Suspend a red rose within a glass jar, and in 
that situation expose it to the confined fumes of a brimstone match ; 
ihis will soon produce a change in its colour, and at length the flov/er 
will become quite white. 

Muriatic Acid Gas. Pour one part of sulphuric acid upon two 
parts of dry muriate of soda, in a turbulated retort, and collect the gas 
as it becomes disengaged, over mercury in a pneumatic apparatus. 
Or, take some of the muriatic acid of commerce, heat it in a glass re- 
tort, and it may be collected as in the preceding method. Proceed as 
in the first experiment, but instead of collecting the gas over mercury, 
receive it in a vessel containing a small portion of water. By these 
means liquid muriatic acid will be formed. Take a small quantity of 
silver, or a piece of an ore containing silver, and digest it in someptc- 
rijied nitric acid, which will dissolve the whole of the silver. A sin- 
gle drop of muriatic acid will separate a portion of the silver in white 
flakes, v/hich will fall to the bottom of the glass in an insoluble preci- 
pitate. Proceed as in the last experiment, but instead of using mu- 
riatic acid drop in a portion of common salt, which will as effectually 
precipitate the silver. By these means any ore may be divested of 
the silver it contains. 

To Remove Contagious Vapour arising from the Beds of the Side. 
Remove the sick and other persons from the room — set a tea-cup or 
gallipot on the floor, half filled with table salt — pour into it strong 
sulphuric acid, and the room will be filled with muriatic acid gas — 
after a few minutes open the windows, and the air of the room will 
be purified. 

To jyeiitralize Animal Effluvia arising from the Beds of the SicJi. 
Pour a tea-spoonful of muriatic acid upon a red hot iron shovel, and 
then pouring a wine-glass of water upon it — the acid wdl rise up in 
the state of a suffocating gas, and the. water will follow it in the state 
of vapour and absorb it almost instantaneously, so that the suffoca- 
ting gas aWII wholly disappear. 

Chlorine Gas. Put into a retort a little black oxyde of manga- 
ilGse in powder, and pour upon it double its weight of strong muri- 



tradesman's guide. ' S,T 

alic acid, connect the retort with the pneumatic tiougii, and receive 
the gas over water. Wlien the ascension of the gas slackens, apply 
the heat of a lamp, and it will be disengaged in abundance. Its spe^- 
citic gravity is to that of hydrogen, nearly as 34 to 1. 

If a small quantity of liquid oxymuriatic is wanted, it may readily 
be found with a little enchlorine, (a compound of chlorine and oxy- 
gen ; chlorous acid,) by dissolving a few grains of oxymuriate of pot- 
ash, and adding the solution to an ounce of common muriatic acid. 
It is of a yellowish green colour, which was the cause of its being 
called chlorine. This gas cannot be breathed without great injury. 
It discharges vegetable colours — burns all the metals, and when com- 
bined with water, will dissolve gold and platinum : with various alka- 
ine and earthy bases, it forms salts, called chlorides. Instead of chang- 
ing blue vegetable colours red, as is the case with acids generally, 
chlorine destroys colours. Instead of distinguishing it as one of the 
acids, it would be more proper to call it an acidifying principle, for it 
possesses few properties wiiich characterize that class of bodies. Its 
taste is astringent; and, unlike the acids, is combined very sparingly 
with water. It has not been decomposed either by electricity or gal- 
vanism ; which is presumptive proof of its being a simple substance. 
Its great use is in bleaching. The following experiment may be con- 
sidered as a complete example of the process of bleaching coloured 
goods : if a few pieces of dyed linen cloth, of different colours be dipped 
into a phial of oxymuriatic acid, the colours will be quickly discharg- 
ed ; for there are few colours w^hich can resist its energetic effects. 

Carburetted Hydrogen Gas. Take some pieces of coal from a 
coal pit bed, or some other place, Vv'here the coal has been exposed to 
the weather a long time, and has become intimately combined with 
water ; dry, pulverize, and heat it in a gun barrel ; the heat must be 
raised gradually, for a slow heat will evaporate the v>^ater, with but ve- 
ry little combination. Collect the gas into the cistern, and put some 
into a glass-holder and burn it, when will be produced a blue flam^ 
without giving much light. 

Carburetted. Hydrogen^ united with Oxygen Gas. Mix the gases 
in equal volumes, in a beU glass, or tumbler, pour this into a narrow 
mouthed bottle or decanter, sink the bottle under the water of the cis-^. 
tern, holding the thumb over its mouth: wet a roll of paper in spirits 
turpentine, light it and hold it close to the water over the bottle and let 
up the gas in small bubbles — when they come in contact with the blaze 
of the taper they will explode, which produces a noise like the firing of 
musketry under the water. 

Heavy Carburetted Hydrogen, or. White Gas. — Take half a gill 
of alcohol, put it into a deep turbulated retort, pour upon it in a small 
steady stream, about twice as much by measure, of strong sulphuric 
acid — put in the stopper, and apply the candle to the retort, approach- 
ing it gradually. Let a little of the first escape, which consists of 
atmospheric air and ether, collect the gas over water ; if it contains 
considerable sulphuric acid, it will generally disappear soon, while 
standing over water ; but hme water will purify it if necessary. Mix 
it with double its volume of oxygen and explode it, as directed with 
the carburetted hydrogen. Burn it pure in a stream, and it will give 
9- very luminous blaze. Fill a glass cylinder, or eight <Jifixa.e phig^ 



^ * TJIE AKTIST AM) 

■with liquid chlorine, pass this gas up into it, until abo\it two-thirds of 
th^ liquid chlorine is displaced. The voiume of the gas will be diminish- 
ed oh standing a few seconds, and water will ascend. On the surface 
of the water will be seen oily masses resembling small drops of tallow\ 

Jl Gas ichich will produce a himijions appearojice. Take an ounce 
phial — fill it two-thinls fiul of sweet oil ; now insert shavings of phos- 
phorus, half an inch of a common stick will ansWer — hold the phial , 
near the- fiie, until nearly as hot as can be borne by the hand ; keep it 
at this temperature till the phosphorus is melted, then takeout the cork, 
the upper part of the phial will become luminous in the dark ; let eve- 
ry light be extinguished in the room, and pour two or three teaspoon- 
fuls of it in your hand — rub it thoroughly over your face and hair — the 
face will become exceedingly luminous- — the hair exhibiting undulating 
flames. The phial must be warm, not hot, that the oil may have a 
temperature equal to blood heat when applied. 

Phosphorus, is obtained from animal bones. The process is too 
lengthy to show in this work ; a very small quantity is sufficient for 
experiments — it can be purchased at' 1^1 50, to $2 per oz. 

To obtain the Oxyde of Phosphorus. Let a stick of phosphorus bo 
exposed in water, for several days in a phial : the outside will be cov- 
ered with a white substance — this is the oxyde, which is more inflam- 
mable than that \\hich is free. 

Application. :;: 1. Scrape a little off, and expose it to the rays of 
the sun, and in a short time it will take fire. 

2. By heating a phial moderately, with a piece of phosphorus at- 
tached to the end of a wire, and rubbing it about the inside in a half 
melted state, so as to coat it, we obtain the oxyde, or as it is some- 
times called " Phosphoric coat match phial." If it is not very cold 
weather, by taking a little out and exposing it to the air, it will take 
fire and burn spontaneously. In preparing it there is danger of its ta- 
king fire, in which case the phial must be stopped until the flame is ex- 
tinguished. 

3. Rub a stick of phosphoms lightly on a board, and it will appear 
l\iminoits in the dark. Blow on it, and undulating waves will be ex- 
hibited and vanish alternately. 

4. To produce hrilliant sparhs. Place on a table, apefectlydry 
earthen plate, in the centre of which lay a small piece of phosphorus; 
set it on fire and invert over it a half gallon turbulated bell glass, per- 
fectly dry : raise'one side of the glass a httle, or place a chip under it; 
start the stopper of the turbulature a little, sb as to permit the nitrogen 
gas to escape, as the oxygen of air in the glass becomes exhausted. 
We[are thus furnished with the exliibition of a snow storm. Dry white 
phosphoric acid will fall on the plate ; it strongly attracts water, hke 
the other acids ; it will become fiquid, though corked very tight in a 
phial ; therefore, much care, -is necessary to keep it perfectly tight 
itt a phial. While the powder remains dry and undisturbed on the 
plate, dip a fine shaving brush into some cold water, and strike it a-, 
cross yotir finger, so as to sprinkle very fine drops of water on the pow- 
der, and very brilhant sparks will be exhibited. 

Phosphorus Bottles. Phosphorus two drachms, Kme one drachm, 
mixedj together, put into a closely stopped phial, an^ heat it before 
the fire, or in a ladle of sand for about half an hour. 






traues^ean's guide. ■ * 29 

2. Phosphorus one drachm, cera niba fifteen grains, put it int^a bot- 
tle under water, and melt them together; let the water cool, and a^ it 
beo-ins to grow solid, turn the bottle round that the sides may be coatr; 
ed; then pour out the water and dry it in a cool place. 

Matches for instantaneous U2;ht. Oxymuriate of potash, flour of 
sulphur, each half a scruple, vermilion two grains,* a sufficient quantity 
of oil of turpentine to make a paste, with which coat the" ends of slips 
of wood, previously dipped in oil of turpentine- and dried; when these 
matches are plunged in oil of vitriol and immediately withdrawn, thej 
take fire instantaneously. To prevent the oil of vitriol from spilling, 
if the bottle should accidentally fall on one side, pounded asbestos, 
%and is put into the bottle to soak up the acid. 
2. Oxymuriate of potash nine grains, sugar three grains, flour of 
iilphur two grains, a sufficient quantity of spirits of wine; the wood 
to be previously primed with camphire dissolved in spirits of wine. 

CHAPTER X. 

Glauber Salts. Put a tea spoonful of table salt into a wine glass, 
%vhich has been previously dried on a plate; pour upon it a tea spoon- 
ful of sulphuric acid. Muriatic gas will escape into the atm.osphere, 
and glauber salts will be formed in the wine glass. By this experiment 
elective affinity is illustrated. 

Put some sulphuric acid into a tumbler, diluted with six times as 
much water; drop iii some carbonate of soda until effervescence 
ceases; and the nauseous taste of glauber salts will be recognized. 
By slow evaporation it may be crystalized. 

Silver Boiling Powder. White argol, common salt, of each a suffi- 
cient quantity; a small quantity of this powder is put into water, and 
plate is boiled in it, to which it gives a brilhant brightness. 

Borax. Common borax dissolved in about sixteen times its bulk 
of hot water in a galhpot; then pour into it nearly half its weight of 
sulphuric acid; stir it on hot coals five or six minutes, th«n set it by 
to cool. Decomposition takes place; sulphate of soda is formed, 
which remains in solution; the boracic acid is disengaged and appears 
as shining solid scales; pour off the solution and rinse the scales several 
times in cold water; each time wait for them to separate from the wa- 
ter; when well washed they are nearly tasteless. Now dissolve some 
of the scales in alcohol on an earthen plate; set the alcohol on fire 
with a hghted roll of paper; as it burns the sides of the flame will be 
tinged with a beautiful green. 

The salt which this acid forms in combustion with soda is much used in bronzing, under 
the name of borax. It brings brass to the Uquid state, when thrown upon it at a temperature 
considerably lower than its fusing point, 

Epsom Salts. Put sulphuric acid into a tumbler, diluted with about 
six times as much water; drop in carbonate of magnesia until effer- 
vescence ceases; thus epsom salts are formed in solution. 

Pure Silex Powder. Heat a gun flint red hot and throw it into 
cold water in order to render it brittle; pulverize it very fine and mix 
the powder with about five times its bulk of pearlash, melt the mixture 
and keep it in a- state of fusion fifteen minutes; now dissolve it in two 
or three tim^s its bulk of water; pour in diluted sulphuric ^cid, a little 



30 T.HE AP,TIST ANP 

at a time, as long as it continues to cause a precipitation. After it 
stands a little while to settle, pour off the liquid part, and wash or rinse 
the precipitate in hot water several times until the water poured off is 
tasteless. 

This substance is the principal iRgreBient in gun fiints, rock crystals, carnclian, &c. On 
this principle glass is manufactured. 

Oxydated Tin. Put some tin in an iron ladle and heat it no higher 
than to melt it; the surface Avill immediately absorb oxygen from the 
atmosphere sufficient to form the 'protoxid of tin, called the yellow 
oxyde. This may be scraped off with an iron poker, when another 
similar pellicle Avili be formed; and the succession may be continued 
until the whole mass is an oxyd. 

If the protoxid of tin be put into a crucible, heated to redness, 
and continually stirred with an iron rod for some time, it will absorb 
another definite proportion of oxygen. It then becomes -peroxyd of 
tin, called the white oxyde, or putty of tin. 

The white oxyde of tin is an excellent material for sharpening edge 
tools, as knives, razors, &c. — for polishing burnishes, glass lenses, 
&c. When melted with glass it forms the white enamel used for 
clock and watch faces, &c. 

Acetate of Alumine. Dissolve equal parts of alum and sugar of 
lead in water, in separate wine glasses, and mix these solutions. The 
acids exchange bases; and the sulphate of lead falls down, while the 
acetate of alumine remains over it in a liquid state. This liquid may 
be poured off for use. 

It is an important mordant much used in dying, and it is manufactured in this way by 
calico printers. 

Explosive Poivder. Scatter some thin shavings of phosphorus over 
the bottom of a broad iron mortar; sprinkle crystals of oxymuriate of 
potash among them. Now, putting a leather glove upon the hand, 
rub the iron pestle smartly around among the shavings and the phos- 
phorus, and a succession of explosions will be made, resembling the 
irregular discharge of musketry. 

All explosive powders are indebted for their powers to the same principle. Gun powder 
is composed of 75 per cent, of nitrate of potash, 15 per cent, of charcoal, and 10 per cent, of 
sulphur. 

Lime. Put a little potter's clay paste into a crucible, and heat it 
in the forge as high as white heat of iron; now pour it out upon a 
brick on a table, and it will be perceived that it is not melted; mix 
some of the same kind of clay intim.ately with about an equal quantity 
of pulverized marble or chalk, and heat it again as hot as before; pour 
it out and the whole mass will spread on the brick in the state of melt- 
ed cinder. 

On this principle potters reject all clay which contains lime. When clay contains a very 
small per centum of carbonate of lime, it would be sufficient to cause a kiln of potter's ware 
to melt. The carbonate of lime can always be detected by pouring on a few drops of diluted 
muriatic acid. Ever so small a quantity of lime will cause an effervescence, and prove the 
mass to be clay-marl, unfit for pottery. 

Bleaching Salt,iised in manufactories. Pass into water,in which finely 
pulverized and newly slacked lime is suspended by continual agitation — 
a stream of oxymuriatic acid gas will come over. In the large way, a 
dry powder of newly slacked lime is agitated in a strong cask, which 
is absorbed by lime. Some prefer passing the gas into hogsheads of 



tPvADLS^IA^'s GUIDE. 31 

^vater, in which the lime is suspended by agitation; for an experiment 
it may be pressed from a bladder, as directed in making oxymuriate 
of potash; but the bladder may be held in the hand, and the receiver 
shfdcen continually. 

Alkaline Salts. Dissolve in separate wine glasses a little copperas, 
blue vitriol, white vitriol, and sugar of lead; pojur into each a small 
quantity of the solutions of either potash, soda, or ammonia, and the 
metalhc oxyde of the salt will be precipitated, and an alkaline salt 
formed in each glass. 

This principle is of much use in the manufacture of articles used in medicine and the arts, 
as will be evident hy attending the daily business of the laboratory. 



'|Pe< 



Cobalt, is sold in the shops in the state of an imperfect oxyde, call- 
ed zaffre. The pure metal is reddish grey. 

Mix finely pulverized flint and borax, and put in a small quantity of 
zaffre. Melt this mixture with pretty strong heat in a crucible, and 
a strong blue glass will be produced. Or, put a little zaffre m borax 
alone, or in pearlash, and melt the mixture. 

The smalt sold in shops in powder is merely pulverized glass prepared as above. 

Liver of Sulphur. Take some diy pearlash, and half as much 
sulphur, mix them and rub them well together: melt them in a crucible, 
covered with another. As soon as melted it must be poured out, and 
corked up tight in a phial to prevent its deliquencing. Sulphuretted 
hydrogen gas may be made with this equally as well as the sulphate of 
iron. 

Artificial Volcanoes. Ram with force into a large pot, a paste, 
made of 100 pounds of iron filings, intimately mixed with 100 pounds 
of pulverized sulphur, and just water enough to make a deijse paste. 
This pot is then buried to a considerable depth in the earth, and be- 
tween ten and twenty hours afterwards it bursts and burns with great 
force. It is presumed this experiment was never tried in America. It 
requires a great quantity of the mixture to produce any effect. Lem- 
ery produced it with the quantity above specified. 

JUagnesia, is found pure, or merely combined with water : some- 
times it forms one of the constituents of the soap stone or talco- 
se rocks, of asbestos, and some other minerals. It is generally ob- 
tained from sea water, after it is separated from the common salt: it 
exists in the state of a muriate and sulphate in sea water, from which 
it is obtained by mLxing with it a solution of common pearlash. A 
double decomposition takes place; and vvhile the sulphate of potash 
remains in solution, the carbonate of magnesia falls down. This is 
the carbonated, or white magnesia of the shops. 

Calcined Magnesia. Drop diluted sulphuric acid upon carbonate 
of magnesia of the shops, and it will effervesce violently; that is, a 
bubbling will be caused by the escape of carbonic acid in the state of 
gas: put a little of the same carbonate of magnesia into a crucible, and 
keep it about the white heat of iron fifteen mmutes: now after it cools, 
drop onjit diluted sulphuric acid, and it will scarcely effervesce, be- 
cause the carbonic acid is driven out. If a little of it be dissolved 
in water it will give the alkahne test with red cabbage, much stronger 
than before heating. 



32 THE ARTIST AND 

It is difficult to drive off all the caibonic acid by heat, so that no ef- 
fervescence can be produced by the application of sulphuric acid. 

Tooth Powder. Heat finely pulverized charcoal to redness in an 
iron skillet, and pouring it while hot into a bowl of clean water, is the 
best of all substances to pre^rve the teeth from decay, after it has 
commenced. If kept ni a bottle, it will remain under water, defend- 
ed from gases, and if shaken up and a tea spooBBfiil taken occasional- 
ly m the mouth, and the teeth rubbed v, ith it, every thmg impure will 
will be absorbed. 

Putrid meat will become purified by immersing it in a similar man- 
ner: putrid water is punned by pouring into it heated charcoal powder. 

2. Rad. irid. flor. four ounces; oss. sepiae, two ounces; crem. tart, 
one ounce; ol. caryoph. sixteen drops; lake sixteen drops. 

3. Catechu, one ounce; cort. peruv. flav., crem. tart, cassia, bol. 
armen., of each 4 drahcms; sang, dracon. myrrh, of each two drachms. 

4. Rose pink, twenty ounces; bole armen. oss. sepise, crem. tart, 
of each eight ounces; myrrh four ounces; rad. irid. flor. two ounces; 
ess. bergam. half a drachm. 

5. Oss. sepise, four ounces; crem. tart. rad. irid. flor. of each two 
ounces; alum, ustri, rose pin^i, of each one ounce. 

6. Magnesia, rad. iiid. flor., rose pink, cretas ppae, of each two 
ounces; natr. ppi. six drachms; ol. rhodii, two drops. 

Ginger Beer Pow'ders. White sugar, one drachm two scruples; gin- 
ger, five grains; natr. pp. tv.enty-six grains in each blue paper : acid 
of tartar, one scruple and a half in each white paper. These quanti- 
ties are for half a pint of water. 

Spruce Beer Powders. White sugar, one drachm two scruples; 
natr. pp. twenty-six grains; essence of spruce, ten grains, in each blue 
paper: acid of tartar, half a drachm in each white paper; for half a 
pint of water. 

Soda Powders. Carbonate of soda, half a drachm in each blue pa- 
per: acid of tartar, twenty five grakis, in each white paper; for half a 
pint of water — a very pleasant and coolmg beverage in summer: sugar, 
if desirable, may be added to the paper containing the aqid of tartar. 

Portable Lemonade. Acid of tartar, one ounce; sugar, six ounces; 
essence of lemon, one drachm: rub together, diviae into twenty-four 
papers, for a tumbler of water each. 

Copjjeras, Sulphate of Iron. Put diluted sulphuric acid into a Flo- 
rence flask, consisting of about five times as much water as acid. Ap- 
ply a very little heat, so as rather to wanri than heat the acid. Drop 
in iron filings until they will fall to the bottom quietly; pour ofl" the 
limpid liquid into earthen plates. This is copperas m solution; and 
by a slow evaporation it may be crystallized. On this principle the 
copperas of commerce is manufactured; but the process is different; 
Iron pyrites is moistened and exposed to the atmosphere a considera- 
ble time in a shallow vat or box; after it becomes covered with a crust 
it is dissolved in water or leached, and evaporated. 

Oxynmriate of Potash. Mix common salt three pounds, manganese 
two pounds, and add oil of vitrei two pounds, previously diluted with a 
suflicient quantity of water, distil into a receiver containing prepared 
kah, six ounces; dissolved in water, three pounds: when the distillation 
is finished; evaporate the liquid in the receiver slowly in the dark; the 



tradesjian's GUICE. ^ 

oxy muriate v/ill crysitallize first in flakes; stimulant, from one to twd 
grains; explodes when struck, or dropped into acid. 

Salt of Sorrel. From the leaves of wood sorrel braised and express- 
ed; the juice is then left to settle, poured off* clear, and cryst^lized by- 
slow evaporation; one hundred v/eight of wood sorrel yields five or sis 
ounces. 

2. By dropping aqua kali into a saturated solution of oxalic acid in 
water, it will precipitate, and may be separated by filtration; if too 
much alkali is added, it is taken up, and will require an addition of the 
acid to throw it doA\Ti again; cooling — used to make lemonade, and 
whey, as also salt of lemons. 

Ammonia. Ammonia is serviceable in dying, and in staining ivo- 
ry; but its principal use is in niaking the muriate of ammonia, of which 
it is the bases. It is formed by combining ammonia with muriatic 
acid. It is known in commerce by the name of Sal Ammoniac. 

Convey some muriatic acid gas into a glass jar containing a portion 
of ammoniacal gas. From the mixture of these two invisible gases 
a solid substance will be produced; viz. the common sal ammoniac. 

Sal ammoniac is used by some dyers in what they call composition, 
to prevent the tin from precipitating. In tinning metals it is of use to 
cleanse the surfaces, and to prevent them from oxydizing by the heat 
which is given to them in the operation. It is also employed in tho 
assay of metals, to discover the presence of iron. Ammoniacal gas 
may be procured by heating strong liquid ammonia; this gas will bo 
disengaged in abundance. On account of its affinity for water, it must 
be received over mercury, when it is intended to exhibit it in the state 
of gas. Pour a little caustic ammonia into a clear solution of suphate 
of zinc. This will precipitate the metal in a white powder. If the phial 
be now shaken, the zinc will be immediately re-dissolved, thus serv- 
ing as a test to distinguish zinc from iron and various metals. Dro^ 
as much nitrate of copper into water as will form a colourless solution; 
then add alittle ammonia, equally colourless, and an intense blue color 
will arise from the mixture. Take the blue solution formed by the 
last experiment, add a httle sulphuric acid, and the colour will disap- 
pear; pour in a httle solution of caustic ammonia, and the blue colour 
will be restored. Thus may the liquor be alternately changed at pleas- 
ure. Dissolve some oxyde of cobalt in caustic ammonia; this will 
produce a red solution, different in colour from that of all other metal- 
lic solutions. 

1. Double elective affinity. Take about four parts of muriate of lime, 
and five parts of sulphate of soda, weighing them after being well dried 
over coals, on plates. Dissolve them in water separately. Now mix 
them in a wine-glass, and a precipitate of lime (gypsum) will soon set- 
tle at the bottom, and a solution of the muriate of soda will stand 
over it. On testing the new compounds with red cabbage, they will 
be found to be neutral salts, exhibiting neither the acid or alkaline test. 
On tasting the Uquid, it will be found a solution of table salt. 

Con-osive sublimate of the shops is m.ade upon this principle, by 
sulphate of mercury and muriate of soda. 

Dr. AVallaston constructed a scale, by which the artist or chemist 
can at sight determine what proportions of any compounds are requii-- 
cd for decomposing each other without loss. For example, if a giverf 

E 



34 • THE ARTIST AND 

quantity of sulphuric acid and muriatic acid v/ould require three times 
as much potash as aiumine for saturation: though all these acids 
would differ from each other in the absolute quantity required. 

2. Put into tv/o wine-glassy, half a spoonful of muriatic acid to 
each; weigh two equal parcels of carbonate of soda, about a teaspoon- 
ful to each glass. Drop the carbonate of soda from each parcel into 
its respective glass, till effervescence ceases. Now weigh what re- 
mains of each parcel, and they will be found equal. Try the two li- 
quids with tasting rods, (pine sticks are as good for the purpose as 
tasting rods,) and the taste of common table salt will be recognized. 
From this experiment will be learned that the law of definite propor- 
tions, is of great importance in the arts. It regulates the uniformity 
of compound bodies, and prevents the evils which might arise from 
carelessness or mistake in the manufacture of many*articles. For 
example, in the manafacture of copperas, 36 parts of protoxyde of iron 
will unite with precisely 40 parts of sulphuric acid. And in the man- 
ufacture of white vitriol, 42 parts of oxyde of zinc will unite with 40 
parts of sulphuric acid. These are the uniform proportions in the dry 
state, and each take 63 parts of water for crystallization. 

3. Mix alcohol and water, or sulphuric acid and water. The quali- 
ties and sensible proportions of both these liquids will rem.ain unchang- 
ed, being diffused among the water, there will be less of them in a giv- 
en measure, but they will remain unchanged. Thus, by affinity, some 
substances unite in indefinite proportions, and their properties and sen- 
sible qualities are not changed. 

CHAPTER XL 
OF SOAP AND POMADES. 

To make Soap. Melt a little common potash in an iron ladle, then 
put into it small bits of fresh meat and woollen rags, and boil them in 
a short time. The rags and meat will be dissolved, and soap will be 
formed. On this principle soap is made by boiling any animal sub- 
stance with lye. It requires very strong lye, or rather potash, to con- 
vert rags and some other animal substances into soap. 

White Soap. Into half a wineglass of water, pour a teaspoonful 
of olive oil — no combination takes place — -drop in a piece of pearlash 
of the size of half a pigeon's egg: let it dissolve and stir the mixture, 
which effects a chemical combination, and produces white soap. 

This experiment illustrates simple affinity. 

Hard Soap, Heat in a clean tin basin, good soft soap until dis- 
solved, with about twice its measure of rain or river water — then put 
in about half a gill of fine common salt, to a quart of this solution. 
The muriatic acid of the salt will unite with the potash of the soap, 
and leave the soda of the salt to unite with the oil of the soap; this lat- 
ter compound, after a little boiling, v/ill become somewhat dense and 
float on the surface of the liquid. On draining off the liquid, which is 
chiefly muriate of potash, and drying the floating compound, we obtain 
common hard soap. 

Soap boilers make common hard soap on tlus principle. The liquid muriate of potash, 
they call waste lye, or dead lye. ' The fine hard soap is made directly from the barilla or 
kelp, which is a rough sub-carbonate of soda, made from the leached ashes of sea-weeds. 

White Wash Balls. One pound sap. alb. hisp.; three pints aqua 



TRADESMAN S GUIDE.. 3o 

tosar. album, ovor no. ij.; one ounce aq. kalippi.: hoil till hard again, 
add one scruple ol. lign. rhod., ten drops ol. caryoph. one drachm ess. 
jasmim half a drachm of ess. neroli, and form into squares. 

2. Five pounds of white soap, four ounces rad. irid. flor; three ounc. 
amyli; one ounce' styras calum. aq. rosar. q. s. 

3. One pound sap. alb. hisp. almonds blanched, beat up into a paste, 
with rose water and orange flower water, three ounces; one ounce ma- 
gister. marcasitse; two drachms of kali ppi.; six grains of musk, three 
grains of cive; one scruple ol. lign. rhodi; one drachm ess. jasmin. 

Cream Balls. Seven pounds white curd soap; one pound amyli: 
water a sufficient quantity; beat it together, weigh it into ounce balls, 
,Bnd roll in pulverized amyli. 

White soap, starch, of Q^ch one pound; ess. lemon four drachms; 
aq. rosar. eight ounces; make into balls of three ounces and a half each. 

Red Mottled Wash Balls. Cut white soap into small square pie- 
ces, roll them in vermilion, and squeeze the pieces together into balls 
without mixing them more than is necessary. 

Blue Mottled Wash Balls. In hke manner rolling the pieces in 
powder blue. 

Windsor Soap. Hard curd soap, melted and scented with ol. car- 
ui.and ess. bergam.; an inferior sort is made with ol. carui only. 

Starheifs Soap. Made by rubbing warm kali ppi. with ol. turpen- 
tine, adding a little water. 

Macquer^s Acid Soap. Four ounces sapon. ven.;,ol. vitriol, q. s. 
add the acid by degrees to the soap, rendered soft by a little water, 
continually rubbing the mass in a mortar — detergent, used when alka-. 
lies would be prejudicial. 

Shaving Liquid — Shaving Oil. Sap. Moll, four pounds; spirits 
vyine rectified five pints. 

Essence Roy ale pour fair la barbs. Sap. cast, eight ounces, proof 
spirits one pint. 

Pomade de la jeunnesse. Pomatum mixed with pearl white, or 
magestery of bismuth; turns the hair black. 

Pomade Divine. One pound eight ounces of beef's marrow; cin- 
namon, one ounce and a halt^; stor. calam. benzoini, rad. irid flor. of 
each one ounce; caryoph. nuc. myrist. of each one drachm. 

2. Sevi. ovilli, one pound eight ounces; stor. calam, benzoini, rad,, 
irid. flor., rad. cyperi, cinnam., caryoph, arom. nuc. mosch., of each 
nine drachms; keep melted in a gentle heat for some time, then strain. 

3. Sevi. ovilli four pounds; cera alb. one pound; ess. bergam. ess. 
lemon, of each one ounce and a half; ol. lavend.. oi. origani, of each 
four drachms, 

CHAPTER XH. 

PAINTING. 

The art of painting gives the most direct and expressive representa- 
tion of objects; and it was doubtless, for this reason employed by ma- 
ny nations, before the art of writing was invented, to communicate 
their thoughts, and to convey intelligence to distant places. The 
pencil may be said to write a universal language; for every one can 
instantly understand the meaning of a painter, provided he be faithful 
to. the rules of his art. His skill enables him to display the various 



*icenes ot'iiatAire at one vievv-; and by his delineation of the siriknig et- 
^Jects, of passion, he instantaneously afiects the soul of the spectator. 
Silent and uniform as is the address which a good picture makes to 
tis, yet it penetrates so deeply into our affections, as to appear to ex- 
ceed the power of eloquence. Painting is the most imitative of all the 
•arts.' 'It gives to us the very forms of those, whose works of genius 
and virtue, have commanded or won our admiration, and transmits 
them from age to age, as if not life merely, but immortality flow^ed in 
the colours of the artist's pencil; or to speak of its still happier use, it 
preserv^es to us the lineaments of those whom we love, when separa- 
ted from us either by distance or the tomb. How many of the feelings, 
which we should most regret to lose, would be lost, but for this de- 
lightful art, — feelings that ennoble, by giving us the wish to im.itate what 
was noble in the moral hero or sage, on whom, vre gaze, or that com- 
foYt us by the imaginary presence of those whose affection is the only 
thing dearer to us, than even our admiration of heroism or wisdom. 
The value of painting mil, indeed, be best felt by those who have lost 
by death a parent or much loved friend, and who feel that they should 
not have lost every thing, if some pictured memorial had still remained. 
Paintings, in regard to their subjects, are called historical, land- 
^ape or portrait; and in regard to the painters, they are divided into 
g'chools or countries; as the Itahan, German, French, English, and 
other schools. Each of the schools has treated the practice of paint- 
ing in its peculiar manner, and each with exquisite beauty and adm.i- 
rable effect. The great component parts of painting are, invention, 
fiY the power of conceiving the materials proper to be introduced into 
a picture; composition, or the power of arranging them; design, or the 
power of delineating them; the management of lights and shades; and 
the colouring. Invention consists principally in three things, the choice 
cf a subject properly within the scope of the art; the seizure of the 
most striking and energetic moment of time for representation, and the 
di^icovery and selection of such objects, and such probable inciden- 
tal circumstances, as, combined together, may best tend to develope 
the story, or augment the interest of the piece. In this part of the 
3irt, there is a cartoon of Raphael, which furnishes an example of ge- 
nius and sagacity. It represents the inhabitants of Lystra about to 
«fFer sacrifice to Paul and Barnabas. It was necessary to let us into 
all the cause and hurry before us; accordingly, the cripple, whom they 
had miraculously healed, appears m the crowd: observe the means 
which the painter has used to distinguish this object, and of course to 
open the subject of his piece. His crutches, now useless, are thrown 
to the ground; his attitude is that of one accustomed to such sup- 
port and still doubtful of his limbs: the eagerness, the impetuosity, with 
which he solicits his benefactors to^accept the honours destined for 
them, points out his gratitude and the occasion of it. During the time 
he is thus busied, an elderly citizen of some conseqiience, by his ap- 
pearance, draws near, and lifting up the comer of his vest, surveys 
with astonishment, the limb newly restored: whilst a man of middle 
age, and a youth, looking over the shoulder of the cripple, are intent 
on the same object. The wit of man could not devise means more 
certain of the end proposed. In the cartoon of Paul preaching at 
^thens", the elevated situation, and energetic action of the apostle, in- 



tradesman's guide. 37 

fttantiy denote him the hero of the piece, whilst the attentive but 'g,s- 
toiiished circle gathered around him, receive as it were, light from him, 
their centre, and unequivocally declare him the resistless organ^of di- 
vine truth. , 

Painting; as apphed to purposes of building, is the application* of 
artificial colours, compounded either with oil or w'ater, in embellish-- 
ing and preserving v/ood, &c. This branch of painting is termed 
economical, and applies more immediately to the power which oil and 
varnishes possess of preventing the action of the atmosphere upon 
wood, iron, and stucco, by interposing an artificial surface. But it 
is here intended to use the term more generally, in allusion to the dec- 
orative part, and as is employed by the architect, throughout every 
part of his work. In every branch of painting in oil, the general pro- 
cesses are very similar, and with such variation only, as readily occur 
to the w'orkman. 

The first coatings, or layers, if on wood or iron, ought always to be 
of white lead of the best quahty, previously ground very fine in nut or 
linseed oil, either over a stone, with a muller, or passed through a mill. 
If used on shutters, doors, or wainscoting, made of fir or deal, it is ve- 
ry requisite to destroy the effects of the knots; which, generally, are 
so completely saturated with turpentine, as to render it perhaps, one 
of the most difficult processes in this business. The best mode, in 
common cases, is, to pass a brush over the knots, with lead ground in 
water, bound by a size made of parchment or glue; when that is dry, 
paint the knots with white lead ground in oil, to which add some pow- 
erful drier, as red lead, or litharge of lead; about one fourth part of the 
latter. These must be laid very smoothly in the direction of the grain 
of the wood. When the last coat is dry, smooth it Avith pumice stone, 
or give it the fi.rst coat of paint, prepared with nut or linseed oil; when 
dry, all nail holes or other irregularities must be stopped with a com- 
position of oil and Spanish White. The work must then be again 
painted with white lead and oil, somewhat diluted with the essence of 
turpentine, which process should be repeated not less than three or 
four times, if a plain white or stone colour is intended; and if the lat- 
ter colour, a small quantity of ivory or lamp black should be added. 
But if the work is to be finished of any other colour, either grey, 
green, &c. it will be requisite to provide for such color, after the third 
operation, particularly if it is to be finished flat, or as the painters 
style it, dead white, fawn, grey, &c. To finish a work flatted or 6.?^^y 
W'hich is a preferable mode for all superior works, one coat of the flat- 
ted colour, or colour mixed with a considerable quantity of turpentine 
will be found sufficient, although it will be frequently requisite to give 
large surfaces two coats of the flatting colour. For stucco it will be 
almost a general rule. In all these operations, some sort of drier 
is necessary; a very general and useful one is made, by grinding in 
linseed, (or, perhaps, prepared oils boiled, are better,) about two 
parts of the best white copperas, well dried with one part of litharge. 

The best drier for all fine whites, and other delicate tints is sugar 
of lead, ground in nut oil: about the size of a walnut will be sufficient 
for 20 lbs. of colour, when the basis is white lead. Painters' uten- 
sils should be always kept very clean. If the colour should become 
foiil, it must be passed through a fine sieve or canvass, and the sur- 



3S THE ARTIST AND 

face of the work carefully rubbed down with sand paper or pumice, 
stone; The latter should foe ground in water, if the paint is tencjier, 
In general cases, perhaps two or three years are not too long to suffer 
stucco to remain unpainted. When it is on battened work it may be 
painted much sooner than wljen prepared on brick. For priming and 
laying on the first coat on stucco, take linseed or nut oil, boiled with 
driers as before mentioned; taking care in all cases not to lay on so 
much, as to render the surface rough, and no more than the stucco 
will absorb. It should be covered with three or four coats of white 
lead, prepared as described for painting on wainscoting, letting each 
coat dry hard. If it is wished to give the work a grey tint, light green, 
&c. about the third coat prepare the ground for such tint, by a slight 
advance towards it. Grey is made with white lead, Prussian blue, 
ivory black, and lake; sage green, pea and sea greens, with white, 
Prussian blue, and fine yellow; apricot and peach, with lake,white, and 
Chinese vermilion; fine yellow fawn colour, with burnt terra sienna, 
or umber and white; and olive greens with fine Prussian blues and 
Oxfordshire ochre. 

Distemper, or painting in water colour, mixed with size, stucco or 
plaster, if not sufficiently dry to receive oil, may have a coating in wa- 
ter colours, of any given tint required. Straw colours may be made 
with French white and ceruse, or white lead and massicot, or Dutch 
pink. Grays, full, with some whites and refiner's verditure. An in- 
ferior grey may be made with blue black, or bone black and indigo, 
pea greens, with French green, Olympian green, &c. Fav/n colour 
■with burnt terra de sienna, or burnt umber and white, and so of any 
intermediate tint. Grind all the colours very fine, and mix with 
whiting and a size made v/ith parchment, or some similar substance. 
Less than than two coats will not be sufficient to cover the plaster, 
and present a uniform appearance. If it should be desirable to have 
the stucco painted in oil, the whole of the water colours should here- 
moved, which can be easily done by washing, and when quite dry, pro- 
ceed with it after the directions given in painting on stucco. If old 
plastering has become disfigured by stains, or other blemishes, and if 
if it is desirable to paint in distemper, in this case, it is advisable to 
give the old plastering, when properly cleaned and prepared, one coat 
at least, of white lead ground in oil, and used with spirits of turpen- 
tine, which will generally fix old stains, and when quite dry, will take 
water colours very kindly. 

Directions for Painting' ill oil on Canvass. After your cloth is 
nailed on the frame, pass over it a coat of size; when dry, rub it over 
wth a pounce stone, to eat off all the knobs: the first size is intended 
to lay down all the threads, and fill up all the small holes, to prevent 
the colour from passing through. When the cloth is dry lay on a coat 
of simple colour, which may not destroy the others; for example, brown 
red, which is a natural earth, full of substance and lasting. If mixed 
with a little v/hite lead it will dry sooner. In grinding this colour, use 
nut or linseed oil, and it should be prepared to lay on as thin as possible. 
When this colour is dry, rub it again with the pounce stone, which reur 
ders it smoother: lay another coat of white lead and charcoal black, to 
render the ground greyish, having care in putting on as little colour 
as possible, to prevent the cloth from cracking, and foi*the better pro- 



tradesman's guide. 39 

senation of the colours to be laid afterwards. ^Xe will observe, 
that if there was no ground laid on the canvass of a picture, previous 
to painting it, and if painted directly on the bare cloth without any pre- 
paration, the colours would appear much more to their advantage, and 
preserve their brightness much longer. Some of the first masters 
imore^nate their canvass with water colours only, and paint aftenvards 
in oil over that ground. This method renders pieces more lively and 
bright, because the ground in water colours draws and soaks the 
oil from the colours^ rendering them finer; whereas, on the contrary, 
oil is the cause of their duhiess, by its detention in their colours. It 
is desirable therefore, to use as little oil as possible; and in order to 
keep the colours stiff", mix with them a httle of the oil of -spike, which 
will evaporate very soon, but renders them more fluid and tractable in 
working. We cannot recommend too much care in keeping the col- 
ours (for the least tint might destroy the best design) unmixed, either 
with brush or pencil. When there is occasion to give more strength 
to some parts of a picture, let it be well dried before it is interrupted 
again. The custom prevails of grounding the canvass with oil colours; 
but when the canvass is good and very fine, the less colour which can 
be laid on for that purpose is preferable. Care is also requisite, that 
the colours and oils are good. The lead which some painters use to 
dry the sooner, soon destroys their brightness and beauty. In short, 
he shows his judgment in painting, who is not hasty in laying his co- 
lours, but lays them thick enough, and covers, at several times, his 
carnations, which, in terms of art is called empater. 

Directions for Colouring Prints. All the colours used for this pur- 
pose are ground with gum water, excepting calcined green. For com- 
plexions, a mixture of white and vermilion. 

For the lips, lake and vermilion. 

For the shades, white and vermilion, and considerable umber. 

For the hair, white with very little umber; if a carroty colour,, yel- 
low ochre and brown red; the shade with bistre and lake, mixed to- 
gether; if light, mix black, white, and umber together. 

For the clothes, if linen, vrhite lead and a little blue; if stuffs, white 
lead alone, and the shades with a grey colour, made by means of a 
mixture of black and white lead together. If a white cloth, a mixture 
of white and umber together, and shade with a compound of umber 
and black. If a red cloth, use vermilion in the fighter parts of the 
folds; lake and vermilion, for the clear shades^ lake alone laid on 
the vermilion, will form the dark shades. 

Dir&ctions for mixing of Colours. Pale yellow for lights — white 
massicot. The chiaro ascuro, with the massicot and umber. The 
dark shade, with umber alone. 

Orange. Black lead, for the lights; shade with the lake. The 
lake is used very clear for the lights, in drapery, and thicker for the 
shades. 

Purple. Blue, white, and lake, for lights; blue, and lake, only, 
for the clear shades; and indigo and blue for the darker ones. The 
pale blue is used for the lights; and for the clear shades, a little thick-- 
er; but for the darker shades, mix the indigo and blue together. 

The gold hke yellow is made with yellow massicot for the fights — 
clear shades, a mixture of black lead and massicot— dark shade, lake, 



40 THE ARTIST AND 

yellow ochre, and a very little black lead: and darkest of all, coloone 
earth and lake. 

The green is of two sorts. The first — massicot and blue, or blue 
and white; for the shade, make the blue predominate in the mixture. 
The other is made with calcined green, and their shades may be 
formed by the addition of indigo. 

For trees mix green and umber together. The grounds are made 
in the same way. For the distance, mix blue and green together. 
Mountains are always made with blue. The sides are made with 
blue, but add a little yellow when you come near the mountains, and 
to make the transition between that and the blue, mix a little lake and 
blue together to soften it. 

Clouds are made with purple; if they be obscure, mix lake and in- 
digo together. Stones are made with white and yellow mixed to- 
gether; and their shades with black. 

CHAPTER XIII. 
OF PAINTS, COSMETICS, DYES, &c. 

Patent Yellow, Pulverise common table salt very finely; put it in- 
to Wedgwood's mortar; add to it twice as much red lead, pulverised: 
rub them well together first; then add water a very little at a time, 
and continue rubbing until a paste is formed. The muriate of lead 
will now be formed, and the soda disengaged; pour in a large quantity 
of water and wash it several tim.es; the soda will wash out and leave 
a white mass; dry this mass and then melt it in a crucible; and a beau- 
tiful substance will be formed, called patent yellow, which is one of 
the most durable pigments. 

2. Common salt 100 lbs. litharge 400 lbs. ground together with 
water; keep for some time in a gentle heat, M^ater being added to sup- 
ply the loss by evaporation, the natron then washed out with more wa- 
ter, and the white residuum heated till it acquires a fine yellow colour. 

Flake White. Made by suspending rolls of thin sheet lead over 
vinegar in close vessels; the evaporation from the vinegar being kept 
up by the vessels being placed in a heap of manure, or a steam bath. 

2. By dissolving litharge in diluted nitrous acid, and adding prepar- 
ed chalk to the solution; astringent, cooling; used externally: also 
employed as paint, mixed with nut oil. 

Protoxid of Lead. Melt some lead in a ladle, and scrape off the 
pelUcle which forms on its surface several times, or until a sufficient 
quantity is obtained; part of this is oxidated and part is not; now put 
this into a ladle by itself: and expose it to a Ioav red heat, continually 
stirring it with a rod until it becomes of a yellow colour. 

This is the massicot used in the arts; also for setting a fine edge to 
razors, for polishing burnishers, &c. 

Red Lead. Put some massicot into a ladle; cover it over loosely 
with an earthen or iron plate, and raise the heat; raise up one side of 
the plate, and stir it often, until it becomes of a bright red; care must 
be taken not to raise the heat so high as to drive off the oxygen,- pre- 
viously acquired; thereby bringing it again to a state of pure melted 
fead; it is very difficult to succeed in this operation vnth small quantities. 

This is the red lead used by painters; and it is on this principle^ 



tradesman's guibe. 41 

but with a dift'ereut apparatus, the lead of the shops is manufactured; 
but it is generally very impure. 

Florence Lake. Pearlashes one ounce four drachms, water a suf- 
ficient quantity, dissolve; alum. Rom. two ounces four drachms, wa- 
ter a sufficient quantity, dissolve; filter both solutions and add the first 
to the alum solution v/hile warm; strain: mix the sediment upon the 
strained with the first coarse residuum obtained in boiling cochineal 
with alum, for making carmine, and dry it. 

Common Lake. Make a magestery of alum, as in making Flor- 
ence lake; boil one ounce four drachms Brazil dust in three pints of 
water, strain; add the magestery, or sediment of alum, to the strained 
liquor; stir it well; let it settle, and dry the sediment in small lumps. 

Fine JSIadder Lake. Dutch grappe madder (that is, madder root 
ground between two mill stones, a small distance apart as in grinding 
pearl or French barley, so that only the bark, which contains the moist 
colour is reduced to powder, and the central woody part of the wood 
left ) two ounces, tie it up in a cloth, beat it up in a pint of water in a 
stone mortar, repeat it with fresh water : in general five pints will take 
out all the colour; boil, add one ounce of alum, dissolved in a pint of 
water, then add one ounce and a half of oil of tartar; wash the sedi- 
ment, and dry; — produces half an ounce. 

Rose Pink. Whiting coloured with a decoction of brazil wood and 
alum. 

Dutch Pink. Whiting coloured with a decoction of birch leaves, 
dyer's weed, or French hemes, with alum. 
Stone Blue. Starch coloured with indigo. 

Litharge. Put some red lead into a ladle and heat it until it is 
partly melted, so that it begins to be agglutinated in a kind of scales. 
If not so bright a red it is a more durable colour. 

White Lead. Make nitrate of lead as before directed, and dissolve 
it in water in a wine glass; pour into it a solution of pearlash, and 
a white insoluble precipitate will fall down. Let the liquid be pour- 
ed off", and the powder washed several times. This is the ivhite lead 
of painters in its purest state. 

It is generally made by applying the vapour of vinegar to sheet lead, 
and contains some acetate of lead and other impurities. 

Sugar of Lead. Put some v/hite lead into a Florence flask; put in 
about ten times as much good sharp vinegar (distilled vinegar is best;) 
shake it up several times and let it stand until the vinegar tastes sweet. 
Add more vinegar, and continue adding by littles, until it will remain 
sour; evaporate and crystallize in the usual way. This is the acetate 
or sugar of lead used in medicine. 

White Vitriol. Pour diluted sulphuric acid upon zinc; leaving the 
zinc in excess: after the action ceases, pour off the clear liquid, which 
is the white vitriol in solution, If this be evaporated slowly, crystals 
will be formed. 
By a similar process the vitriol of the shops is manufactured. 
Chrome. Chrome is found in the state of an acid, combined %vith 
iron, called chromate of iron, it is soraethnes found in granular hme 
rocks. When chromate of iron is pulverized and mixed with nitrate 
of potash and heated to redness, a double decomposition takes place, 
and the chromate of potash is produced. 

F 



42 PiE ARTIST ANB 

fossolve chromate of potash in pure water, pour some of it in a so- 
lution of sugar of lead, and the beautiful yellow pigment, chromate 
of lead, will be precipitated; pour it into nitrate of mercury, cinna- 
bar red is produced; into nitrate of silver, and common red is produced.- 

The chromate of lead is now in general use as a yellow paint; a 
very small quantity mixed with white lead, gives the whole a beauti- 
ful yellow colour. v 

' Almond Bloom. Brazil dust one ounce, water three pints, boil, 
strain; add of isinglass, six drachms; ground sylvestria, two ounces; 
(or cochineal, two drachms; J alum one ounce; borax three drachms; 
boil again, and strain through a fine cloth; used as a liquid cosmetic. 

Pink Dye. Tie safflov/er in a bag and wash it in water, until it no 
longer colours the water; then dry it: — of this take two drachms, salt 
of tartar, eighteen grains, spirits of wine, seven drachms; digest for 
two hours, add two ounces of distilled water, digest for two houra 
more, and add a sufficient quantity of distilled vinegar or lemon juice, 
to render it a fine rose colour, used as a cosmetic and to make French 
roug^. 

JS^ankeen Dye. Arnotto, prepared kali, of each equal parts, boiled 
in water; — the proportion of the kah is altered as the colour is- requir- 
ed to be deeper or lighter; used to restore the colour of faded nankeen. 

Blue Vitriol. Boil copper filings in sulphuric acid, and the salt will 
~be formed in the liquid state: this may be evaporated in the usual way. 

On this principle the blue vitriol of the shops is made, though the 
operation is not similar; the native sulphuret is heated and exposed to 
air and moisture, and thereby the peroxyde is obtained; then the salt is 
readily formed by pouring sulphuric acid upon it. 

Verdigris. Cover a gallipot of boiling vinegar with a piece of pol- 
ished sheet copper; after a short time it will be covered with a thin 
crust of verdigris. Upon this principle, though with a very different 
apparatus, the verdigris of the shops is made. 

Colours for Shoiv Bottles. Yellow. Dissolve iron in spirit of salt, 
and dilute. 

Red. Spirits of hartshorn q. p. dilute v,ith water and tinge with 
cochineal. 

Dissolve sal. ammoniac in water and tinge with cochineal. 

Blue. Blue Vitriol and alum, of each 2 oz, Vvater 24 oz. spirits 
of vitriol a sufficient quantity. 

Blue vitriol, 4 oz. water 36 oz. 

Green. Rough verdigris 3 oz. dissolve in spt. vitriol, and add 48 
©2. water. 

Add distilled verdigris and blue vitriol to a strong decoction of tur- 
meric. 

Purple. Verdigris two drachms; spts. hartshorn 4 oz. water 18 oz. 

Sugar of lead one ounce; cochineal one scruple; water q. p. 

Add a little spts. hartshorn to an infusion of logwood. 

Scarlet Colour — J\Iuriate of Tin. Prepare the nitro-muriatic acid 
by mixing one part of muriatic acid with two of nitric acid, and put a 
very small quantity into a Florence flask. Drop tin into it by small 
'quantities, that it may not become too hot by the rapid union of the 
tin and acid. After the acid is saturated, dissolve some of it in water. 
Dissolvein water in a wine-glass, a single cochineal insect of the shops, 



TRADESMAN'S GUIDjE. 'Inl- 

and drop in a little muriate of tin, and it will become a bright saarlet. 
Wash Colours for Maps or Writin(r. Yellow. GambQge dissolv- 
ed in water a sufficient quantity; French hemes steeped in water, the 
liquid strained, and gum Arabic added. 

Red. Brazil dust steeped in vinegar and alum added. 

Litmus dissolved in water, and spirits of wine added. 

Cochineal steeped in water, strained, and gum added. 

Blue. Saxon blue diluted with water q. p. 

Litmus rendered blue by adding distilled vinegar to its solution.. 

Green. Distilled verdigris dissolved in water, ancl gum added. 

Sap green dissolved in water, and alum added. 

Litmus rendered green by adding kali ppm. to its solution. 

To extinguish Vegetable Colours. Obtain chlorine as follows: 
fill a strong quart decanter one third full of water, put in a pul- 
verized mixture, consisting of half a gill of red lead, and a gill of com- 
mon table salt, well rubbed together; shake it up, then put in two 
thirds of a v/ine glass of sulphuric acid; put in the ground stopper 
loosely; shake the decanter half a minute; the atmospheric air and 
some gas will escape; now fix your stopper perfectly tight, then plunge 
the decanter into a tub or cistern of cold water, keeping the mouth a 
little above the water; briskly agitate it, keeping it under the water, 
once each minute for fifteen minutes. Nov/ take it out and let the 
excess of red lead and salt settle; a yellowish green liquid is produ- 
ced, nearly pure, but containing some muriatic acid; pour a httle in- 
to a wine glass, and it is ready for use to wash out writing from pa- 
per, or extinguish the colour from calico. 

The liquid chlorine obtained in this way, should be kept in a dark 
and cool place. It is used for taking spots out of linen, &c. It has 
been used for fraudulent purposes, to obliterate writing, that something 
different might be substituted. 

English Verdigris. Blue vitriol 24 lbs. white vitriol 16 lbs. sugar 
of lead 12 lbs. alum 2 lbs. all coarsely powdered, put in a pot over 
the fire and stirred till they are united into a mass. 

Venetian Ceruss. Flake white, cav/k equal parts. 

Hamburg White Lead. Flake white 100 lbs. cawk 200 lbs. 

Best Butch White Lead. Flake White 100 lbs. cawk 700 lbs, 

English White Lead. Flake White reduced in price by chalk, in- 
ferior to the preceding. 

Rouge. French chalk ppd. 4 oz. ol. amygd. 2 drachms, carmipe 
one drachm. 

2. Safflower, previously washed in water, until it no longer gives 
out any colour, and dried, 4 drachms, kali pp. one drachm, water one 
pint; infuse, strain; add French chalk, scraped fine with Dutch rushes 
four ounces, and precipitate the colour upon it with lemon juice a suf- 
ficient quantity. 

Cologne Earth, Umber. Black or blackish brown, mixed with 
brownish red, fine grained, earthy, smooth to the touch, becomes pol- 
ished by scraping, very light, burns with a disagreeable smell found 
near Cologne; used in painting both in water colours or in oil, used al- 
so in Holland, to render snuff fine and smooth: very different from the 
i)rown ochre — which is also called umber, and is not combustible. 
Carmine. Boil one ounce of cochineal, finely powdered, in twelve 



i.i - THE ARTIST AND 

Q¥ fourteen pouncls of rain or distilled water, in a tinned copper ves- 
sel, for three minutes, then add twenty-five grains of alum and contin- 
ue the boiling for t^vo minutes longer, and let it cool; draw off the 
dear liquor as soon as it is only blood warm, very carefully, into shal- 
low vessels, and put tliem by,» laying a sheet of paper over them to 
keep out the dust, for a couple of days, by which time the carmine 
will have settled. In case the carmine does not settle properly, a few 
drops of a solution of tin, i. e. dyer's spirit, or a solution of green vitriol 
will throw it dovrn immediately: the Vv-ater being then drawn off, the 
carmine is dried in a warm stove. The first coarse sediment serves 
to make Florence lake; the water dravv-n off is liquid rouge. 

2. Boil 12 cz. of Cochineal powdered, six drachms of alum in 30 lbs. 
of water, strain the decoction, add half an ounce of dyer's spirit, and 
after the carmine has settled, decant the liquid and dry the carmine — 
yields about one and a half ounces, used as a paint by the ladies and by 
miniature painters. 

Whiting, Prepared from the soft variety of chalk, by diffusion in 
water, letting the Avater settle for two hours, that the impurities and 
coarser particles may subside; then drawing off the still milky water, 
letting it deposite the finer sediment; is much finer than the prepared 
chalk of the apothecaries; but is principally used as a cheap paint. 

Ultramarine Blue. Lapis lazuli — one pound is heated to redness, 
quenched in water, and ground to fine powder; to this is added yellow- 
rosin six ounces; turpentine, beeswax, linseed oil, of each two ounces, 
previouly melted together, and the whole made into a mass: this is 
kneaded in successive portions of warm water, which it colours blue, 
and from whence it is deposited by standing, and sorted according to 
its qualities. It is a fine blue colour in oil. 

JYaples Yellow. Lead, one pound and a half; crude antimony, one 
pound; alum and common salt, of each one ounce, calcined together. 

2. Flake v.'hite, twelve ounces; diaphoretic antimony, two ounces; 
calcined alum, half an oz. sal ammoniac, one ounce; calcine in a cov- 
ered crucible with a moderate heat for three hours, so that at the end of 
that time it may be barely red hot: with a large portion of diaphoretic 
antimony and sal ammoniac, it verges to a gold colour. 

Scheele-s Green. Precipitate a solution of two pounds of blue 
vitriol in a sufficient quantity of cold water, by a solution of eleven 
ounces of white arsenic, and two ounces of kali ppm. in two gallons 
of boiling water, and wash the precipitate; — used as a paint. 

Verditer Blue. Made by the refiners from the solution of copper, 
obtained in precipitating silver from nitric acid, by heating it in copper 
pans; this solution they heat and pour upon whiting moistened with 
water, stirring the mixture every day, till the liquor loses its colour, 
when it is poured off, and a fresh portion of the solution poured on, 
until the proper colour is obtained: — an uncertain process; the colour 
sometimes turning out a dirty green, instead of a fine blue. 

French Verdigris. Blue \itriol, twenty-four ounces, dissolved in 
a sufficient quantity of water; sugar of lead, thirty ounces and a half, 
also dissolved in water; mix the solution; filter, and crystalHze by evap- 
oration. It yields about ten ounces of crystals; — a superior paint to 
common verdigds, and certainly ought to be used in medicine, instead 
€>C the^ common. 



tkadesman's guide. 4S 

Pearl Powder. Magestery of bismuth; French chalk, scraped fine 
hy Dutch rushes; of each a sufficient quantity — cosmetic. 

Smalt — Powder Blue. Is made from roasted cobalt, melted with 
twice or thrice its weight of sand, and an equal weightjof potash: the 
glass is poured out into cold water, ground to powder, washed over, 
and sorted by its fineness and the richness of its colour. It is used 
in painting arid getting up linen. 

Bleaching Ldqtiid — Eau de JavelJe. Common salt, two pounds; 
manganese, one pound; water, two pounds; put into a retort; and add 
gradually, oil of vitriol, two pounds: pass the vapour through a solu- 
tion of prepared kali, four ounces, in twenty-nine ounces of water, ap- 
plying heat towards the last. Specific gravity is 1,087. Stimulant, 
antisypilitic; used to bleach linen and take out spots, and to clean 
.books from what has been scribbled on their margins. 

Blachman^s oil colour Cakes. Grind the colours first with oil of 
turpentine and a varnish made of gum mastic in powder, four ounces, 
dissolved without heat in a pint of oil of turpentine; let them dry; then 
heat a grinding stone by putting a charcoal fire under it; grind the col- 
ours upon it, and add an ointment, made by adding melted spermace- 
ti, 3 lbs. to a pint of poppy oil; take a piece ofthe proper size, make 
it into a ball; put this into a mould and press it. When these cakes 
are used, rub them down with poppy oil, or oil of turpentine. 

Brown Red. By recalcining green vitriol, previously calcined to 
whiteness, by an intense heat until it becomes very red, and washing 
the residuum. 

Blachman's Colours in Bladders. Are prepared with the sperma- 
ceti mixture, like his oil colour cakes, but the proportion of oil is lar- 
ger. 

Kemp's White, for Water Colours. Cockscomb spar, q. p. spirits 
of salt, a sufficient quantity; dissolve — add carbonate of ammonia to 
precipitate the white; and dry in cakes for use. 

Crayons. Spermaceti, three ounces, boiling water, one pint; add 
bone ashes finely ground, one pound, colouring matter, as ochre, &c. 
q. p. roll out the paste, and whe» half dry, cut it in pipes. 

2. Pipe clay, coloured v.ith ochre, &c. q. p. — make it a paste \vith 
ale wort. 

English Verdigris. Blue vitriol, twenty-four pounds, white vitriol, 
sixteen pounds, sugar of lead twelve pounds, alum, two pounds, all 
coarsely powdered, put into a pot over the fire and stirred till they are 
united into a mass. 

Vanhermau^s Fish Oil Paints. The oil for grinding white, is made 
by putting litharge, and white vitriol, of each twelve pounds, into thir- 
ty-two gallons vinegar, adding after some time, a ton of whale, seal or 
cod oil; the next day the clear part is poured off, and twelve gallons of 
linseed oil and two gallons of oil of turpentine, are added. 

2. The sediment, left when the clear oil is poured off, mixed with 
half its quantity of lime water, is also used under the name of prepar- 
ed residue oil, for common colours. 

3. Pale Green. Six gallons of lime water, whiting, and road dust, 
of each one hundred weight, thirty pounds of blue black, tv/enty-four 
pounds of yellow ochre, wet blue (previously ground in prepared res- 



4d THE JTRTIST AND 

idue oil) twenty pounds — thin with a quart ppd. residue oil to each 8 
pounds, and the same quantity linseed oil. 

4. Bright Green. 100 lbs. yellow ochre, 150 lbs. of road dust, 
100 lbs. of wet blue, 10 lbs. blue black, 6 galls, lime water, 4 galls, 
ppd. residue and linseed oil, seven and a half galls, of each. 

5. Lead Colour. 100 lbs. whiting, 5 lbs. blue black, 23 lbs. white 
lead, ground in oil, 56 lbs. road dast, 5 galls, lime water, 2 1-2 galls, 
ppd. residue oil. 

6. Brown R^d. 8 galls, lime water, 100 lbs. Spanish brown, 200 
lbs. road dust, 4 galls, ppd. fish oil, ppd. residue and linseed oil, of 
each four gallons. 

7. Yellow. Put in yellow ochre, instead of Spanish brown, as in 
the last. 

8. Blach. Put in lamp black or blue black. 

9. Stone Colour. 4 galls, lime water, 100 lbs. whiting, 28 lb>. 
white lead, ground in oil, 55 lbs. road dust, 2 galls, ppd. fish oil, ppd. 
residue, and linseed oil, of each, 3 1-2 gallons. 

The cheapness of these paints, and the hardness and durability given to them by the road 
dust, or ground gravel, has brought them into great use, for common out door pauit'mg: 

Saxon Blue, ScoWs Liquid Blue. Indigo, one pound, oil of vitriol 
four pounds — dissolve by keeping the bottle in boiling water; then add 
twelve pounds of water, or q. p. 

Pt^ussian Blue. Red argol and salt petre of each two pounds, throw 
the powder by degrees into a red hot crucible; dry bullock's blood 
over the fire, and mix three pounds of this dry blood with the prepared 
salt, and calcine it in a crucible, till it no longer emits a flame; then 
dissolve six pounds of common alum in twenty-six pounds of water, 
and strain the solution; dissolve also two ounces and a half of dried 
green vitriol in two pounds of water, and strain while hot; mix the two 
solutions together, while boiling hot; dissolve the alkaline salt, calcin- 
ed with blood, in twenty-seven pounds of water, and filter through pa- 
per, supported upon linen; mLx this with the other solution, and strain 
through linen; put the sediment left upon linen, while moist, into an 
earthen pan, and add one pound and a half of spirit of salt, — stir the 
mass, and when the effervescence is over, dilute with plenty of water, 
and strain again — lastly, dry the sediment. - 

2. Mix one pound of kali ppd. with two pounds dried blood; put it 
into a crucible, or long pot, and keep it in a red heat till it no longer 
flames or smokes, then take out a small portion, dissolve it in water, 
and observe its colour and effects upon a solution of silver in aqua 
fortis, for when sufficiently calcined, it \vill neither look yellowish, nor 
precipitate silver of a bro^^^ai3h or blackish colour. It is then to be 
taken out of the fire; and when cool, dissolved in a pint and a half of 
water. Take green ^dtriol, one part, common alum, one to three 
parts; mix, and dissolve them in a good quantity of water, by boiling, 
and filter while hot: precipitate tliis solution by adding a sufficient 
quantity of the solution of ppd. alkali; and filter — the precipitate will 
be darker the less alum is added, but it will be greener from the great- 
er admixture of the oxyde of iron,w^hich is precipitated, and which must 
be got rid of, by adding while moist, spirit of salt, diluting the mixture 
with water, and straining. 

3. Precipitate a solution of green vitriol, with a solution of ppd. al- 



tradesman's guide. 47' 

kali, and purity the precipitate with spirit of salt — precipitate a solution 
of common alum, with a solution of kali ppd. — mix the two sediments 
together, Avhile diffused in warm water; strain and dry. 

Vermilion. Cinnahar. Pat quicksilver in a glazed dish, set it on 
a sand bath, let it be well surrounded mth sand every way; pour some 
melted brimstone over it, and with an iron spatula keep constantly 
stirrino- till the whole is converted into a black powder. With this pow- 
der fill the quarter part of' a retort, with a short afid wide neck. Place 
it first on a fire of cinders, — increase it by degrees, and continue it 
for ten hours; after which, make a blasting one twelve hours. 

By the first fii-e there will arise a black flame— by the seconH, a yellow, — and by the last, a 
red. As soon as this is the case let the vessel cool, and you will find in the receiver, and in 
the neck of the retort, a very fine cinnabar. Some, instead of a glass retort, use an earth- 
en, or stone. 

A Fine Azure. Boil and skim well, sixteen pounds of chamber lye; 
then, add one pound fine shellac, and five ounces of alum, in powder. 
Boil all together, till you observe the chamber lye is v/ell changed with 
the colour, which is determined by steeping a white rag in it — if the 
the colour does not please, boil it longer, undergoing a repetition until 
satisfied. Now, put the liquor into a flannel bag — without suffering 
what runs into the pan under, to settle; re-pour it into the bag, and con- 
tinue the process, till the liquor is quite clear and not tinged; then with 
a wooden spatula take off the lake, which is in the form of curd; make 
it into small cakes, and dry them in a shade on new tiles; then they are 
in a state to be kept for use. 

To Marble Wood. Give it a coat of blacking varnish; repeat it as 
many times as you think necessary; then polish it. 

2. Dilute some white varnish, lay it on the black ground, tracing 
with it, such imitations as you like; when dry, rub it lightly with rushes, 
then wipe it, and give a last coat of transparent white varnish, when 
dry, polish it. 

To imitate White JVIarble. Break and calcine the finest white mar- 
ble, grmd it fme and dilute it vvith size; lay two coats of this on the 
wood, which, when dry, polish and varnish as before directed. 

To imitate Black JMarble. Burn lamp black in a ladle, red hot, then 
grind it with brand3^ For the bulk of an egg of black, put the size of 
a pea in lead, in drops, as much of tallov/, and the same quantity of 
soap — grind and mix; then dilute it with a very weak size water. Give 
lour coats of this, and then polish. 

To make Lamp Black for limning. Burn some nut shells in an 
iron pan, and throw them into another full of water; then grind them 
on marble with either oil or varnish. 

Blue. I'Vhiting ground with verdigris will make a very good blue. 

A Fine Green. Grind verdigris with vinegar, and a very small 
quantity of tartar; then add a httle quicklime and sap green, which 
grind with the rest, and put it into shells for keeping. If it becomes 
too hard, dilute it with vinegar. 

2. Grind on a marble stone, verdigris, and a third as much of tar- 
tar, with white wine vinegar. 

Sap green. Express the blackberry juice, when full ripe; addf 
some alum to it; put it in a bladder, and hang it in some place to dry. 

To make Lake, Take three parts of an ounce of brazil wood, a 



48 THE ARTIST ANU 

pint of clear water, one and a half drachms alum, eighteen grains salt 
of tartar; the bulk of two filberts of mineral crystal; three quarters 
of a pound 6f the whitest sound fish bones, rasped; mix, boil till redu- 
ced to one third; strain three tiijaes through a coarse cloth; then set it 
in the sun under cover to dry. 

Jl Liquid Lake. On a quantity of alum and cochineal pounded 
and boiled together, pour drops of oil of tartar until it becomes a fine 
colour. 

A Good Jlzure. Two ounces of quicksilver; sulphur and sal ammo- 
niac, of each one ounce; grind all together, and put it to digest in a ma- 
trass over a slow heat; increase the fire a little; and when you see 
an azured fume arising, take the matrass off*. When cool, as beauti- 
ful an azure is produced as ultramarine. 

T'o die Bones black. Litharge and quicklime, of each six ounces; 
boil in common water, with the bones; stirring them till the water be- 
gins to boil; then take it from the fire, and continue stirring the mix- 
ture till the water is cold, when the bones will become dyed black. 

To Dye Bones green. Pound well together in a quart of strong vin- 
egar, three ounces of verdigris, as much of brass filings, and a handful 
of rue. When done put all in a glass vessel along with the bones you 
wish to dye, and stop it well. Place this in a cold cellar; in a fort- 
night, the bones will be dyed green. 

To dye Bones and Ivory a fine red. Boil scarlet flocks in clear 
water, assisted with pearlashes to draw the colour; then clarify it 
with alum, and strain the tincture through a piece of linen. To dye 
bones or ivory in red, you must first rub them with aqua fortis and 
then immediately with the tincture. 

To whiten Bones. Put a handful of bran and quick lime together 
into a new pipkin, with sufficient quantity of water, and boil it. Boil 
the bones in this until freed from greasy particles. 

To Dye Wood red. Soak chopped Brazil wood in oil of tartar; 
Cor boil it in common water; J give the wood a coat of yellow, made of 
saffron, diluted in water; when dry, give it several coats of the first 
preparation, till the hue becomes pleasing. When dry burnish it, and 
lay on a coat of drying varnish with the palm of your hand. If a ve- 
ry deep red is wanted, boil the brazil wood in water, by adding a small 
quantity of alum or quick lime. 

To Dye Wood White and to produce a fine Polish. Finest En- 
glish white chalk ground in subtile powder on marble; then let it dry; 
sfet it in a pipkin on the fire, with a weak sized water, having great 
care not to let it turn brown, — when hot, give first a coat of size to 
your wood; let it dry; then give one or two coats of the white over it. 
These being dry also, polish with the rushes, and burnish. 

To Dye in FoHshed Black. Grind lamp black on marble with gum 
water; then put it into a pipkin, and with a brush give the wood a coat 
of this; when dry, pohsh. 

To imitate Ebony. Infuse nut galls in vinegar, in which you have 
soaked rusty nails: rub the wood with this, let it dry, polish and bur- 
nish. 

To Dye in Gold, Silver, or Copper. Rock crystal pulverised very 
fine, put into water, warm it in a new pipkin, with a little size; then 
give a coat of it on the wood with a brush. When dry, rub a peice 



tradesman's CLIBE. 49 

of gold, silver, or copper on the wood thus prepaied, and it will assume 
the colour of the metal v/hich you rub it with; after which burnish. 

Ivory Black. ' Is made by burning ivory till it is quite black, which 
is usually done between two crucibles, vvell luted together; used ei- 
ther as an oil or water colour. 

Bone Black. From bones burnt in the same manner, as iv-ory 
black; used by painters, &c. Burnt cork is also used. 

An excellent dije, the basis of maiiy colours. A decoction of the 
seeds of red Trefoil is mixed with different mineral substances; the 
dyes produced are very beautiful, and of a great variety. Among them 
are yellow and green of different shades, as also citron and orange col- 
ours. These dyes are well adapted to v^-ooilen and cotton manufac- 
ture$: they resist the action of the substances, with which trials arc 
uafiially made^ much better than the common dyes. 

Of the Colouring principle of Blood. After having drained the 
clots of blood through a hair sieve, tincture it in an earthen vessel, 
with four parts of sulphuric acid, previously diluted with, eight 
parts of water, and heat the mixture at 70" (cent. — 158^ Fahrenheit.) 
for five or six hours: filter the liquor while hot, which contains the col- 
ouring principle of the blood, albumen, and probably some fibrin; wash 
the residuum with water, equal in quantity to that of the acid employ- 
ed; evaporate the solutions to one half their bulk, then pour in ammo- 
nia sufficient to leave only a slight excess of acid; stir it, and Ave obtain 
a deposite of a purple red colour, principally consisting of the colour- 
ing matter, and containing neither albumen, nor fibrin; wash this de- 
posite until the water contains no more sulphuric acid, or does not pre- 
cipitate any longer the nitrate of barytes: it is then put on a filter, and 
dropped on blotting paper, from which it is taken by means of an ivo- 
ry knife and dried on a capsule. 

Prepared Ox GaU- The fresh gall is left for the night to settle; 
the clear fluid poured off*, and evaporated in a water batSi, to a proper , 
consistence; used by painters in water colours, and thus enables them 
to form an even surface of colour; and also instead of soap to wash 
greasy cloth. 

CHAPTER XIY. 

GLUES, PASTES, &c. 

Glue is made in Europe, of ears, feet, trimmings, sinevrs and scrap- 
ings of the skms of oxen, calves, sheep, &c. old leather, and fresh 
or raw hides mixed and manufactured together; and this mixture is 
said to yield one third of its weight in good strong glue. The best 
glue is from the hides of old animals; whole skins are seldom used, 
unless they are injured by the worm, rotted, or otherwise rendered 
unfit to make leather,- but the smallest pieces are saved for that pur- 
pose. In making glue of fresh pieces of skm, let them be steeped 
in water for two or three days; dried hides may require longer time; 
and bits of leather much longer. While soaking they should be stir- 
red occasionally, then put them to drain in hand barrows, with grated 
bottoms, or m boxes with sloping sides and grated bottoms: when 
drained let them be well washed in several waters. The ears and 
other dirty parts should be steeped and washed by themselves; aftei* 
they are washed clean, put them in a weak limewater, in iron hooped 

G 



56 1';he artist and 

tubs. Leather will require to be kept in M'eak limewater a consider- 
able time, and a little fresh lime should be added occasionally; alum- 
ed skins, tallowed, greasy, bloody, or hairy skins, should be put into 
a stronger^ limewater, and kept longer in it. They sometimes require 
to be taken out, so as to permit the lime to dry on them, and to re- 
main for a considerable tim.e; after which they must be soaked and 
well stirred; then press them out as dry as possible, and put them in 
a copper kettle for boiling, at the bottom of which kettle, should be 
a wooden ^rate. The copper should be filled with the material press- 
ed close, and ^s much water poured on as will run among the pieces: 
make a moderate fire, which increase by degrees, till it boils. As the 
materials melt into glue, some decrease the fire ^\ithout stirring them, 
others stir them as they dissolve. When the glue, on cooling, forms 
a pretty thick jelly, it is done: after this a box is made with wooden 
gratings for the bottom; the inside of the grating bottom is to be lined 
with horsehair cloth, and the box to be placed over a large tub. The 
glue is to be passed through the horsehair cloth, or strainer, quickly, 
while it is veiy hot. The dregs are left to drain some time, and are call- 
ed by the workmen glue-dreg; they make an excellent fuel mixed with 
wood. The room should be kept warm v/hile the glue is settling. In 
the tubs there should be cocks to draw off the hot liquid glue: the fii'st 
glue will be the brightest, but the last will be equally good. Through 
the cocks it must run into flat moulds,' previously wet. When cool, 
cut it out vnth a wet Iinife into squares, and hang it on a line to dry 
and harden in a draught of air; — some place it on a net hung on four 
posts, turning it occasionally: ten days of dry weather, or fifteen days 
of wet (under cover) are required in Europe, but less time in Ameri- 
ca. To polish the cakes, wet them and rub them with new lime. 
The best glue has few dark spots, and no bad smell; and shines when 
broken. To try glue, put it into cool water for three or four days, 
where it must not dissolve, but when dried must preserve its weight. 
The time of boiling is from twelve to fifteen hours, according to 
the fire. Violent heat is to be avoided. 

2. If bones are digested for seven or eight days, \nth weak hydro- 
chloric acid, this acid disolves all the salts that enter into their com- 
position: the bones are softened, become very flexible, and at length 
contain only animal matter. If, in this state, they are put for some 
moments, into boiling water, and after wiping them dry they are sub- 
jected to a stream of cold and fresh water, they may be regarded as 
pure gelatin, or at least, as a substance, which, being dissolved in 
boiling water, affords the handsomest size. 

In order to prepare glue from the clippings of skins of parchment, 
or gloves; from the hoofs, the ears of oxen, horses, sheep, calves, &c. 
after taking off" the hair and removing the fat from these substances, 
Vie boil them for a long time in a large quantity of water; the scum is 
separated, its formation being favoured by adding a little alum or'hme; 
the hquor is strained, and suffered to rest; it is then poured off', and 
skimmed again, and then heated to concentrate it. When sufficient- 
ly so, it is poured into moulds previously wetted, where, by cooling, it 
forms into soft plates; which at the end of twenty-four hours, are cut 
into tablets, and dried in a wami and aiiy situation. 

A vetnj Strong Glue. Soak the finest isinglass twenty-four hours 



tradesman's nuiDE. - 3.1 

in spirits of wine or strong brandy, then boil all very gently together, 
continually stirring it, that it may not burn, until it becomes one liquor. 
Then strain it while hot through a. coarse linen cloth, info a vessel 
when it should be kept close stopped; a gentle heat will melt this glue 
to use. • ^ 

A Parchment Glue, Put two or three pounds of scrapings or cut- 
tings of parchment into a bucket of water, boil the whole till it be re- 
duced to half, pass it through an open linen, and then Iht the liquor 
cool, when it will be a parchment glue. 

A Strong Paste. Common paste is made of wheat floiir boiled in 
water, till it be of a viscid consistence, but when used by book bind- 
ers and paper hangers, it is requisite to mix a fourth, fifth, or sixth of 
the weight of flour of powdered resin or rosin; and when it is wanted 
still more tenacious, gum Arabic, or any kind of size may be added. 
In order to prevent the paste used in papering rooms, &c. from bemg 
gnawed by rats &c. powdered glass is sometimes mixed with it; but 
the most effectual and easy remedy is to dissolve a little sublimate 
say one drachm to a quart of water, which not only prevents rats andj 
mice, but all kinds of vermin being troublesome. 

Of Fibrin. If blood is agitated with a handful of rods, immediate- 
ly after having been drawn from the veins, the fibrin adheres to them; 
it is then only necessary to wash it repeatedly, in order to discolour it 
and obtain it pure. 

Liquid Albumen. This constitutes the white of the egg; in truth 
this last, besides albumen, contains several salts, and some sub-car- 
bonate of soda, of Avhich it is impossible to divest it. 

Solid Albumen. Pour alcohol on the white of an egg, dissolved in 
water, and filtered; the albumen immediately precipitates, and is to be 
washed. 

Fish Glue — Isinglass. To procure this, the inner membrane of 
the sivimming bladders of some kinds of sturgeon are washed; they 
are then slightly dried and rolled, and afterwards dried in the air. An 
inferior kind is prepared by digesting in boiling water, the head, the 
tail, and the jaws of certain whales, and almost all fish without scales. 

Potatoe Starch — common Arroio Root: may be made from frozen 
potatoes in as large a quantity and as good, as those which have not 
been spoiled by the frost; very white, crimp to the fingers, and colours 
them; friable, heavy, sinking in water; when held to the light, it has 
shining particles in it: dissolves in boiling water as easily as the true 
arrow root: 100 pounds of potatoes yield 10 pounds of starch. 

CHAPTER XV. 

MINERALOGY. 

The whole science of mineralogy has been created since the year 
1770. All the solid materials of which this globe of ours is compos- 
ed have received the name of minerals. But it is only very lately 
that the method of ascertaining the component parts of these substan- 
ces was discovered, or that it was possible to describe them so as to be 
intelligible to others. Nothing at first appears easier to describe than 
a mineral, but in reality it is attended with a great deal of difficulty. 
The properties of minerals must be described in terms rigidly accurate^ 



5'2 IHE ARTIST AND 

which convey preciso' ideas of the veiy properties intended, and of no 
other. The smallest deviation would lead to confusion and uncertain- 
ty. Mineralogy therefore must have a language of its own, that is to ' 
say, it must have a term to denote every mineralogical property, and 
each of these terms must be accurately defined. . The language of 
mineralogy was invented by the celebr-:.£ed Werner, of Fryburg, and 
first made known to the world by the publication of iiis treatise o;i the 
External Characters of JMinerals. The object of this philosopher was 
to invent a method of describing minerals with such precision, that every 
species could readily be recognized by those who were unacquainted with 
the terms employed. For this purpose, it was necessaiy to make use of 
those properties only, which presented themselves to our senses on in- 
specting the mineral. These were called by Werner, external char- 
acters, because they may be ascertained without destroying the min- 
eral examined. These constitute the first division of the characters 
of minerals. To the second belong those which are derived from a 
chemical composition, or discovered by any chemical change which the 
mineral suffers; to the third, are refe red those properties which are af- 
forded by certain physical characters, derived from circumstances fre- 
quently observed with regard to a mineral, as to the place where it is 
found, or the minerals by which it is usually accompanied. 

Werner divides the external characters of minerals into two kinds, 
viz. general and particular. The general characters are the follow- 
ing: 1. Colour, 2. Cohesion. 3. Unctuosity. 4. Coldness. 5. 
Weight. 6. Smell. 7. Taste. The particular characters are: 1. 
Aspect of surface. 2. Aspect of the fracture. 3. Aspect of the dis- 
tinct concretions. 4. General aspect. 5. Hardness. 6. Tenaci- 
ty. 7. Frangibihty. S. Flexibility. 9. Adhesion to the tongue. 
10. Sound. 

General CharacHtrs. I. The colours of minerals are extremely 
various. Werner conceives eight fundamental colours, and de- 
scribes all the rest as compounds of various proportions of these. 
The fundamental colours are, 1. Snow white. 2. Ash grey. 3. 
Velvet black. 4. Berlin, or Prussian blue. 5. Emerald green. 
6. Lemon yellow. 7. Carmine red. S. Chesnut brown. II. With 
respect to cohesion, minerals are either solid, friable, or fluid. 
III. With respectto imctuosity, minerals are distinguished into greasy 
and meagre; the first have a certain degree of greasiness in feeling; 
the second not. The other four general characters require no partic- 
ular description. 

Particular Characters. I. In the aspect of the surface of the 
mineral, three things claim attention. 1. The shape of the mineral. 
2. The kind of surface. 3. The lustre of the surface, which is either 
splendent, shining, glistening, glimmering, or dull. II. When a min- 
eral is broken, the new surface exposed is called the fracture. Three 
things claim attention: 1. TI.e lustre of the fracture. 2. The kind 
of fracture. 3. The shape of the fragments. III. Distinct concre- 
tions are distinct masses, which may be separated from each other, 
without breaking through the solid part of the mineral, by natural 
seams. Three particulars in respect to them are, 1. Their shape. 
2. Their stf»/ace. 3. Their /«5^re. IV. Under the head of g-ewcraZ 
aspect, three particulars are comprehended. 1. The transparency. 



tradesman's guide. 53 

2. The streak. 3. The soiling, or stain left when nibbed. V. Min- 
erals are either, 1. Hard. 2. Scmi^hard, or 3. Soft. YI. With 
respect to tenacity, minerals are, 1. Briltle, when on being cut with a 
knife the particles fly away with a noise. 2. ,Sectile, when the particles 
do not fly oft* but remain. 3. Ductile, when the mineral can be cut in- 
to slices. VII. By frangibilitij is meant the resistance which min- 
erals make when we attempt to break them. The degrees are five, 
1. Veynj tough. 2. Tough. 3. JModerately tough. 4. Fragile. 5. 
Very fragile. VIII. With respect to ^ej7i&27%, some are, 1* Elas- 
tic. Others, 2. Common. Others, 3. Inflexible. IX. Some min- 
erals adhere to the tongue, 1. Very strongly. 2. Others, moderately. 

3. Others, slightly. 4. And others, very slightly'. X. Some minerals 
give a ringing sound, others a grating sound, others a creaking sound, 
as tin. With respect to electricity, some minerals become electric 
when heated, others when rubbed, others cannot be rendered electric. 
The electricity of some is positive, of others negative. 

CLASSIFICATION OF MINERALS. 

Minerals are usually arranged under four classes; earthy, saline, in- 
flammable and metallic. The earthy contain all such as derive their 
qualities from the earths; and they are divided into genera, according 
to the particular earth, which predominates in each, or more properly 
into families, according to their resemblance, in external characters, 
as the diamond family, the ruby family, tale family, and others. The 
diamond, of which there is only a single species, is the hardest and 
most beautiful of all the mineral productions. When heated to the 
temperature of melting copper, and exposed to a current of air, it is 
gradually but completely combustible. It is wholly converted into car- 
bonic acid, and therefore consists of pure carbon. By means of dia- 
mond powder, this substance can be cut and polished on a wheel, in 
the same way as other gems are wrought by emery. It is manufac- 
tured by "jewellers into brilliants and rose diamonds; employed by gla- 
ziers for^cutting glass, by lapidaries for cutting and engraving on the 
hardest gems, and in the finer kinds of clock work. The ruby family 
is composed of seven species. They are all extremely hard, and sev- 
eral of them highly valued on account of their beauty. The saline 
minerals comprehend all the combinations of alkalies with acids, which 
exist in the mineral kingdom; such as salt petre or nitrate of potash, 
common rock salt, or muriate of soda, and sal ammoniac, or the mu- 
riate of ammonia. 

The salt springs in some parts of the United States, ov/e their ori- 
gin to beds of fossil salt. The rain water which penetrates to their 
surface, effects tlie solution of ^a certain portion of them, with which 
it comes in contact, and thus becomes in some cases, it is said, ten 
times Salter than the water of the sea. The inflammable minerals, 
comprehend all combustible bodies, except metals, and the diamond, 
and include sulphur, resins, bitumens, and graphite. Among the bi- 
tumens are found the several varieties of mineral coal, that are used 
for fuel, gas lights, &c. 

The metallic minerals comprehend all the mineral bodies that are 
composed either entirely of metals, or of which metals constitute the 
moet considerable and important part. It is from the minerals of this. 



'54- THE ARTIST AND 

< lass that all metals are extracted. The ores are found in a native 
state, either simple, consisting of only one substance, or compound, 
when composed of two or more substances. Of the metals, the first is 
platina, which is the heaviest. Platina is found among the gold ores 
of South America, in the form of small grains or scales. Its colour is 
between steel grey and silver white, and its duetiUty and malleability 
is very great. Gold is never found in a mineralized state, but it oc- 
curs native in many parts of the world, generally alloyed with a little 
silver or copper, and commonly in the form of grains. It is the heav- 
iest of .all metals except platina, and although its tenacity is such that 
a wire of one tenth of an inch in diameter, w ill support a weight of five 
hundred pounds without breaking, yet it possesses less tenacity than 
iron, copper, platina or silver. It is ductile and malleable beyond any 
known limits. The gold beaters extend it by hammering a number of 
thin rolled plates between skins or animal membranes, upon blocks of 
marble fixed m wooden frames. A grain of gold has been extended to 
more than forty-two square inches of leaf, and an ounce, which in the 
form of a cube, is not half an inch either high, broad, or long, is beaten 
under the hammer into a surface of 146 1-2 square feet. Th3re are 
gold leaves, not tliicker in some parts, than the three hundred and six- 
ty thousandth part of an inch; but on wire used by lace makers it is still 
thinner. An ingot of silver, usually about thirty pounds weight, is 
rounded into an inch and a half in diameter, and 22 inches long. Two 
ounces of gold leaf are sufficient to cover this cylinder, and frequent- 
ly effected with a little more than one. The ingot is repeatedly drawn 
through the holes of several irons, each smaller than the other, till it 
becomes finer than a hair; and yet the gold covers it, and does not 
leave the minutest part of the silver bare, even to the microscope. It 
has been calculated that it would take 14 millions of filings of gold, such 
as are on some gilt wire, to make up the thickness of one inch. The 
ductility of it is such, that one ounce is sufficient to gild a silver wire 
more than thirteen hundred miles long. 

Gold may be dissolved in nitro-muriatic acid and it thus becomes mu- 
riate of gold, which is obtained in small crystals, and is very soluble in 
water. If white satm ribbon, or silk, be moistened with a diluted so- 
lution of gold, and, while moist, exposed to a current of hydrogen, or 
sulphuric acid gas, the metal will be immediately reduced and the silk 
become gilt with a regular coat of gold. The potters dissolve gold to 
be applied to the common porcelain; and it is used in a state of solu- 
tion for staining ivory and ornamental feathers. It gives a beautiful 
purple red; even marble may be stained with it. 

Silver, is the most brilliant of metals. You may know when silver 
is pure, by heating it in a common fire, or in the flame of a candle; if 
it is alloyed it will become tarnished; but if it be pure silver, it will re- 
main perfectly white. It is exceedingly ductile, of great malleability 
and tenacity. 

Of the salts of silver, the nitrate is best known, and when melted 
and run into moulds, it forms the lunar caustic of the apothecary. 

Mercury, in the temperature of our atmosphere, is a white fluid met- 
al, having the appearance of melted silver. When submitted to a suf- 
ficient degree of cold, it is similar in appearance to other metals, and 
may be beaten into plates; at the poles it would probably be always solid. 



tradesman's guide. ho 

The quicksilver mine of Guanea Velica, in Peru, is 170 fathoms in 
circumference, and 480 deep. In this profound abyss are seen streets, 
squares and a chapel: thousands of flambeaux are continually burning 
to enlighten it. Those who work in tlie mine are generally afflicted 
with convulsions. Notwithstanding this, the unfortunate victims of 
insatiable avarice are crowded together, and plunged naked into these 
abysses. Tyranny has invented this refinement in cruelty, to render 
it irl'ljDossible for any thing to escape its restless vigilance. 

Copper, is the most ductile of all the metals except gold. The 
salts of copper are numerous and much used in the arts connected 
with chemistry. All the salts are poisonous; therefore, great care 
should be taken not to taste wantonly the solutions. 

Lead, is malleable and ductile, but possesses very little tenacity. 
It may be mixed with gold and silver in a moderate heat; but when the 
heat is much increased, the lead rises to the surface, combined with 
all heterogeneous matters. The ore of lead is so poisonous, that the 
steam arising from the furnaces where it is worked, infects the grass, 
in all the neighbouring places, and kills the animals which feed on it. 
Culinary vessels, lined with a mixture of tin and lead, which is the 
usual tinning, are apt to communicate to acid food, pernicious qualities, 
and require to be used with great caution. The same may be said of 
liquors, and other acid substances kept in glazed ware, and of wines 
adulterated with litharge, and such other prepamtions of lead as are 
sometimes used, for the purpose of rendering them sweet. 

Iron. If utility were made the standard of estimation, iron would 
hold the first place in the class of metals, and would be counted more 
valuable than gold, as it appears indispensably necessary to the cai- 
rying on of every manufacture. There has never been an instance of 
a nation, acquainted with the art of manufacturing iron, which did 
not in time attain to a degree of. civilization, greatly beyond the in- 
habitants of those countries where this metal was wanting, or its use 
unknown. It is plentifully and universally diffused throughout na- 
ture, pervading almost everything, and is the chief cause of colour in 
earths and stones. It may be detected in plants and animal fluids. 

Tm, must have been known very early, as it is mentioned by Ho- 
mer, and also in the books of Moses. Tin enters into combination 
with many of the metals, and forms alloys with them, some of which 
are of great importance. It is not very ductile, but so malleable, that 
it may be beaten into leaves thinner than paper. Tin foil, as it is usu- 
ally termed, is about one thousandth part of an inch thick. It is em- 
ployed to give a brightness to several articles; used in forming reds and 
scarlets. Substances which produced to the ancients only faint and 
fleeting colours, give us such as are brilliant and durable, by the use 
of a solution of this metal. 

Zinc, is one of the most abundant metals in nature, except iron. 
It is used in China for the current coin, and for that purpose it is em- 
ployed in its utmost purity. Until recently it was used in Wales for 
mending roads. When zinc is heated, it readily attracts oxygen; and at 
a white heat the absorption of oxygen is so rapid and violent, that the ox- 
yde immediately sublimes, and for this reason it has acquired the name 
of flowers of zinc. Combined with copper and tin, the mixtures con- 
stitute some of the most useful compound metals. It ip used in med^ 



56 THE ARTIST AND 

icine, is the base of white vitriol, and its carbonate or oxyde may be ad- 
vantageously substituted for white lead in painting. 

Manganese, is a brilliant metal, of a darkish white colour, inclining 
to grey, of considerable hardness, and of difficult fusibility. When 
exposed to the air it absorbs oxygen with rapidity, and fails into pow- 
der. Its oxydes are used in preparing the bleaching liquor, in purify- 
ing glass, and in glazing black earthen ware. By the application of a 
red heat the black oxyde produces oxygen gas in great abundance. 

Antimony, is a brilliant, brittle metal, of a silvery colour, which has 
not much tenacity, and entirely destitute of ductility. It is wholly 
volatilized by heat; is susceptible of vitrification. Its oxydes are em- 
ployed in medicine, and in colouring glass. 

Arsenic, is generally found in combination with sulphur, oxygen and 
many of the metals. Its colour is bluish, or greenish white, becom- 
ing on exposure to the air, dark, almost black; it is extremely brittle, 
and the softest of all metals; and is one of the most active of mineral 
poisons. Beautiful shades of different colours may be given to differ- 
ent substances by solutions of arsenic; so that the substances which 
are most injurious to the animal economy, appear to be endowed with 
properties for embelhshing the works of creation, and by imparting col- 
our to other bodies, is made to minister in various ways to our gi-atifi- 
cation. Hov/ diversified are the means which the Creator has adopt- 
ed for the promotion of his benevolent designs ! 

CHAPTER XYI. 
THE ART OF ASSAYING ORES. 

Before metallic ores are worked in the large way, we should know 
what sort of metal, and what portion of it, is to be found in a deter- 
mined quantity of the ore, in order to ascertain whether it will be prof- 
itable to extract largely, and in what manner the process is to be 
performed. 

The assaying may be performed in the dry or moist Vvay; the first 
is the most ancient, and in many respects the most advantageous, 
and consequently continues to be mostly used. Assays are made 
either in crucibles, with the blast of the bellows, or in tests, under a 
muffie. The assay weights are always imaginary. Sometimes an 
ounce reprf^sents an hundred weight on the large scale, and is subdi- 
vided in the same number of parts, as that handred vreight is in the 
great; so that the contents of the ore obtained by the assay, shall ac- 
curately determine by such relative proportions, the quantity to be 
expected from any weight of the ore on a larger scale. In th^ lotting 
of the ore, care should be taken to have small portions, from differ- 
ent specimens, \^^iich should be pulverized and well mixed in an 
iron or brass mortar. The proper quantity of the ore is now taken, 
and if it contains either sulphur or arsenic, it is put into a cmcible or 
test and exposed to a moderate degree of heat, till no vapour arises from 
it; to assist this volatilization, some add a small quantify of powdered 
charcoal. 

Fluxes. To assist the fusion of the ores, and to convert the ex- 
traneous matters connected with them into scoria, assayers use dif- 
ferent kinds of fluxes. The most usual and efficacious materials 



trauesman's guide. 5t 

(ov the composition are borax, tartar, nitre, sal ammoniac, common 
salt, glass; flour-spar, charcoal powder, pitch, lime, litharge, &c. in 
different proportions. 

Crude of White Flux. This consists of one part of nitre and two 
of tartar, well mixed. 

Black Flux. The above crude flux detonates by means of kindled 
charcoal; and if it be effected in a mortar sUghtly covered, the smoke 
that rises unites ^\^th the alkalized nitre and the tartar, and renders it 
black. 

Cornish Reducing Fhix, Ten ounces of tartar, three ounces and 
six drachms of nitre, three ounces, and one drachm of borax; well 
mixed. 

Cornish Refining Flux. Defilagrate, then pulverize, two parts of 
nitre, and one part of tartar. 

In working at large, such expensive means cannot be applied to ef- 
fect our purpose, as the inferior metals would be too much enhanced 
in value; consequently, where the object is the production of metals 
in the great way, in smelting works, cheaper additions are used; such 
as lime stone, felted-spar, flour-spar, quartz, sand, slate, and slugs, 
which are to be chosen according to the different views of the opera- 
tor. The iron ores on account of the argillaceous earth they contain, 
require calcareous additions, and the copper ones, rather slugs, or 
vitrescent stones, than calcareous earth. 

Humid assay of JVletallic Ores. The mode of assaying ores for 
their particular metals by the dry way, is deficient, so far as relates to 
pointing out the different substances connected with them, because 
they are always destroyed by the process for obtaining the assay met- 
al. The assay by the moist way is more correct, because the differ- 
ent substances can be accurately ascertained. The late celebrated 
Bergman first communicated this method. It depends upon a know- 
ledge of the chemical affinities of different bodies for each other; and 
must be varied according to the nature of the ore; it is very extensive 
in its application, and requires great patience and address in its execu- 
tion. To describe the treatment of each variety of metallic ores would 
take too much of our room; but to give a general idea, we shall de- 
scribe the procedure, both in the dij and humid way, on one species 
of all the different ores. 

To assay iron Ores. No. 1. The ore must be roasted till the va- 
pour ceases to rise. Take two assay quintals of it, and triturate them 
with one of flour-spar; three-fourths of a quintal of powdered charcoal, 
andjfour quintals decrepitated sea-salt; this mixture is to be put into 
a crucible, and the crucible itself exposed to a violent fire for an hour, 
and when it is cool, broken. If the operation be well conducted, the 
iron vtdll be found at the bottom of the crucible, to which must be 
added those metallic particles, which may adhere to the scoria. The 
metallic particles so adhering may be separated by pulverizing it in a 
paper, and then attracting them with a magnet. 

No. 2. If the ore should be in a calciform state, mixed with earths, 
the roasting of it previous to assaying, if not detrimental, is at least 
superfluous; if the earths should be of the argillaceous and silicious 
kind, to half a quintal of them, add of dry quickhme and flour-spar, of 
«ach one-fourth of a quintal, deduced to powder, and mix them with 

H 



^ THE ARTIST AISD 

©iie-fourth ©i a quintal of powdered charcoal, covering the whole with 
oiae ounce of decrepitated common salt; and expose the luted crucible 
to a strong forge fire for an hour and a quarter, then let it gradually 
cool, and let the regulus be struck off and weighed. If the ore 
contain calcareous earth there will be no occasion to add quickhme; 
the preparations of the ingredients maybe as follows: viz: one assay 
quintal of ore, one of decrepitated sea-salt, onehalf of powdered char- 
Coal; and one of flour-spar, and the process conducted as above. 

There is a great difference in the reguli of iron; when the cold regulus is struck with a ham- 
mer, and breaks, the iron is called cold short; when struck red hot, it is called red short; but if 
it resist the hammer, both in its cold and ignited state, it is good iron. 

Himiid assay of Iron Ore. To assay the calciform ores, which do 
not contain much earthy or stony matter, they must be reduced to a 
fine powder; dissolved in marine acid, and precipitated with the Prus- 
sian alkali. A determinate quantity of the alkali must be previously 
tried, to ascertain the portion of iron which it will precipitate, and the 
estimate made accordingly. If the iron contains a considerable por- 
tion of zinc or manganese, the precipitate must be calcined to redness, 
and the calx treated with dephlogistigated nitrous acid, which will then 
take up only the calx of the zinc; when this is separated, the calx 
should again be treated either with nitrous acid, with the addition of 
sugar, or with the acetous acid, wiiich will dissolve the manganese, if 
any; the remaining calx of iron may then be dissolved by the maiine 
acid, and precipitated by the mineral alkali, or it may be further cal- 
cined, and then weighed. 

Zinc Ores. Take the assay weight of roasted ore, and mix it well 
Avith one-eighth part of charcoal dust, put it into a strong luted earthen 
retort, to which must be fitted a receiver; place the retort in a furnace 
and raise the fii'e, and continue it in a violent heat for two hours; then 
cool gradually, and the zinc will be found hanging to the neck of the 
retort in its metallic form. 

In ike humid way. Distil vitriolic acid over calamine to dryness; 
the residuum must be lixiviated in hot water; what remains undissolved 
is silicious earths; to the solution add caustic volatile alkah, which 
precipitates the iron and argil, but keeps the zinc in solution. The 
precipitate must be redissolved in vitriohc acid, and the iron and ar- 
gil separated. 

Tin Ores. Mix a quintal of tin ore, previously washed; pulverized 
and roast till no arsenical vapours arise, with half a quintal of calcined 
borax, and the same quantity of pitch,:pulverized; put the whole into a 
crucible moistened with charcoal dust and water,and the crucible placed 
in an air furnace. After the pitch is burnt, give a violent heat for a 
quarter of an hour; and on withdrawing the crucible, the regulus will 
be found at the bottom. If the ore be not well washed from earthy 
matters, a larger quantity of borax will be requisite, with seme pow- 
dered glass; and if the ore contains iron, some alkaline salt may be 
added. 

In the humid way. Let the tin ore be well separated from its stony 
matrix, by well washing, and reduced to the most subtile powder; 
digest in concentrated oil of vitriol, in a strong heat for several hours; 
when cooled, add a small portion of concentrated maiine acid, and let 



tradesman's CUIQE. 2iJ9 

it stand one or two hours; then add water; and when the solutioB is 
clear, pour it off and precipitate it by fixed alkali. y 

One hundred grains of this precipitate, well washed and dried, are equivalent tp one hun-. 
dred of tin in itsreguiine state, if the precipitate consists of pure tin; but if it contain copper 
or iron, it must be calcined in a red heat for an hour, and then digested in nitrous acid, which 
will take up the copf)er; and afterwards in marine acid, which will separate the iron. 

Lead Ores. As most of the lead ores contain either sulphur or ar- 
senic, they should be well roasted. Take a quintal of roasted ore, 
and the same quantity of calcined borax; half a quintal of fine powdered 
glass; a quarter of a quintal of pitch, and as much clear iron filings. 
Line the crucible with wet charcoal dust, and put the mixture into the 
crucible; place it before the bellows of a forge fire. When it is red 
hot, raise the fire for twenty minutes, withdraw the crucible; when 
cold, break it. 

In the humid waij. Dissolve the ore by boiling it in diluted nitrous 
acid; the sulphur, insoluble stony parts, and calx of iron will remain. 
The iron may be separated by digestion in caustic fixed alkali. The 
nitrous solution contains the lead and and silver, which should be 
precipitated by the mineral fixed alkali, and the precipitate well wash- 
ed in cold water, dried, and weighed. Digest it in caustic volatile 
alkali, which will take up the calx of silver; the residuum being 
again dried and weighed, gives the proportion of the calx of lead, 132 
grains of which, are equal to 100 of lead in its metallic state. The 
difference of weight before and after the application of the volatile al- 
kah, gives the quantity of silver; 129 grains of which are equal to 100 
of silver in the metalUc state. 

Copper Ores. Take an exact ounce troy of the ore previously 
pulverized, and calcine it we\\\ stir it all the time with an iron rod, 
without removing it from the crucible: after the calcination add an 
equal quantity of borax; half the quantity of fusible glass, one-fourth 
the quantity of pitch, and a little charcoal dust; rub the inner surface 
of the crucible with a paste composed of charcoal dust, a little fine 
powdered clay and water; cover the mass with common SE^lt, and put a 
lid on the crucible, which place in a furnace; raise the fire gradually, 
till it burns briskly, and the crucible kept in it for half an hour; stir the 
metal often with an iron rod; and when the scoria adhering to the rod 
appears clear, take the crucible out and suffer it to cool, when it must 
be broken, and theregulus separated and weighed; this is called black 
copper, to refine which, equal parts of common salt and nitre are to be 
well mixed together. The black copper is brought into fusion, and a 
teaspoonful of flux is thrown on it, which repeat three or four times; 
then pour the metal into an ingot mould, and the button is found to be 
fine copper. 

In the humid way. Make a solution of vitreous copper ore, in five 
times its weight of concentrated vitriolic acid, and boil it to dryness; 
add as much water as will dissolve the vitriol thus formed; to this so- 
lution add a clean bar of iron, which will precipitate the whole of the 
copper in its metallic form. If the solution be contaminated with 
iron, the copper must be redissolved in the same manner, and precip- 
itated again. The sulphur may be separated by filtration. 

Bismuth Ores. If it be mineralized by sulphur, or sulphur and iron, 
a previous roasting will be necessary. The sti-ong ores require nt) 



60 THE ARTIST AND 

roasting, only to be reduced to fine powder. Take the assay weight 
and mix it witli half the quantity of calcined borax, and the same of 
pounded glass; line the crucible with charcoal; melt it as .quickly as 
possible; when well done, take out the crucible, and let it cool grad- 
ually. The regulus "wall be found at the bottom. 

In the humid way. Bismuth is easily soluble in nitrous acid, or 
aqua-regia. The solution is colourless, and is precipitable by the ad- 
dition of pure water; 118 grains of the precipitate from nitrous acic, 
we'l washed and dried, are equal to 100 of bismuth in its metallic 
form. 

Antimonial Ores. Bore a number of small holes in the bottom of 
a small crucible, place it in another, a size larger, lute them well to- 
gether; then put the proper quantity of ore in small lumps in the up- 
per crucible, lute thereon a cover; place the vessels on a hearth; sur- 
round them with stones six inches distant; fill with ashes the interme- 
diate space, that the under crucible may be covered with them; .but 
upon the upper, charcoal must be laid: the whole made red hot W the 
assistance of the hand bellows. The antimony runs through the holes 
of the upper vessel, being easy of fusion, into the other, where it is 
collected. 

Humid assay of arseniated Jlniimonij. Dissolve the ore in aqua- 
regia, both the regulus and the arsenic remain in solution; the sul- 
})hur is separated by filtration. If the solution be boiled with^wice 
its weight of strong nitrous acid; the regulus of antimony will be pre- 
cipitated, and the arsenic converted into an acid, which may be ob- 
tained by evaporation to dryness. 

JManganese Qre. To obtain the regulus, mix the calx or ore of 
manganese with pitch, made into a ball; put it into a crucible, lined 
with powdered charcoal, one-tenth of an inch on the sides, and one- 
fourth at the bottom; then fill the empty space with charcoal dust; 
cover the crucible with another inverted and luted on, and expose it 
to the strongest heat of a forge for an hour or more. 

In the humid way. Roast the ore well to dephlogistigate the calx 
of manganese and iron, if any, and then treat with nitrous acid to dis- 
solve the earths. Treat the residuum with nitrous acid and sugar, 
when a colourless solution of manganese is procured, and also of the 
iron, if any. Precipitate with Prussian alkali, digest the precipitate 
in pure water; the Prussiate of manganese will be dissolved, whilst 
the Prussiate of iron will remain undissolved. 

Arsenical Ores — Made by sublimation in close vessels. Beat the 
ore into small pieces; put them into a matrass, which place in a sand 
pot, with a proper degree of heat; the arsenic subhmes, and adheres to 
the upper part of the vessel; collect it carefully, and ascertain its weight. 
A single sublimation will not be sufficient; sometimes, as in many ca- 
ses, the arsenic will melt with the ore, and prevent its total volatiliza- 
tion; in which case, perform the first sublimation with a moderate 
heat; then bruise the remainder again, and expose it to a strong heat. 

In the humid way. Digest the ore in marine acid, add the nitrous 
by degrees, to help the solution. The sulphur will be found on the fil- 
ter; the arsenic will remain in the solution, and may be precipitated in 
its metallic form by zinc, adding spirits of wine to the solution. 

J^ickel Ore. Roast the ores well, to expel the sulphur and arsenic; 



tradesman's guide. 61 

the greener the calx proves during this torrefaction, the more it 
abounds in the nickel; but the redder it is; the more iron it contains. 
Fuse in an open crucible, a proper quantity, with twice or thrice its 
weight of black flux, the whole covered with common salt. Expose 
the crucible to the strongest heat of a forge fire; make the fusion com- 
plete, and it will produce a regulus, though not pure. It contains a 
portion of arsenic, cobalt, and iron. Deprive the first by fresh calcin- 
ation, adding powdered charcoal; the second, by scorification; but it 
is difficult to free it entirely from iron. 

In the humid way. By solution in nitrous acid, it is freed from its sul- 
phur; and by adding water to the solution, bismuth, if any, may be 
precipitated; silver, also, if contained in it, by the marine acid; and 
copper, when any, by iron. 

To separate cobalt from nickel, when the cobalt is in considerable quantity, drop a saturat- 
ed solution of the roasted ore in nitrous acid into liquid volatile alkah; the cobaltic part is in- 
stantly redissolved, and assumes a garnet colour, when filtered, a grey powder remains on 
the filter, which is the nickel. The cobalt may be precipitated from the volatile alkali, by 
any acid. 

Cobalt Ores. Free them as much as possible from earthy matters, 
by washing, and from sulphur and arsenic by roasting. When pre- 
pared mix the ore with three parts of black flux, and a little decrepitat- 
ed' sea salt; put the mixture in a lined crucible, cover it, and place it 
in a forge fire, or hot furnace; for it is difficult of fusion. When well 
fused, a metallic regulus will be found at the bottom, covered with a 
scoria, of a deep blue colour: as almost all cobalt ores contain bismuth, 
this is reduced by the same operation as the regulus of cobalt; they 
are incapable of chemically uniting together, and are always found dis- 
tinct from each other in the crucible. The regulus of bismuth having 
a greater specific gravity, is always at the bottom, and may be separat- 
ed by a blow with a hammer. 

In the humid way. Make a solution of the ore in nitrous acid, or 
aqua-regia, and evaporate to dryness; the residuum, treated with the 
acetous acid will yield to it the cobaltic part; the arsenic should be 
first precipitated, by the addition of water. 

Mercurial Ores. The calciform ores of mercury are easily reduc- 
ed without any addition. Put into the retort a quintal of ore, and a 
receiver luted on, containing some water — place the retort in a sand 
bath, give a sufficient degree of heat to force over the mercury which 
is condensed in the water of the receiver. 

Sulphurated Mercurial Ores. They are assayed as above, by dis- 
tillation; only, these ores require an equal weight of clean iron fihngs to 
be mixed with them; to disengage the sulphur, while the heat volatili- 
zes the mercury, and forces it into the receiver. These ores should be 
tried for cinnabar, to know whether it will answer the purpose of ex- 
tracting it from them; for this, take a determinate quantity finely pow- 
dered, put it into a glass vessel, expose to a gentle heat at first, gradu- 
ally increased till nothing more is sublimed. By the quantity thus ob- 
tained, we may know whether the process will answer. Sometimes 
the cinnabar is not of so lively a colour, as that which is used in com- 
merce; then, it may be refined by a second sublimation, and if then 
too dark, it may be brightened by the addition of mercury, and sub- 
limed again. 



62 THE artist's and 

Humid assay of Cinnahar. Dissolve the stony matrix in nitrous 
acid, the cinnabar being disengaged, should Idc boiled in eight or ten 
times its weight of aqua-regia, composed of three parts nitrous, and one 
of marine acid. The mercury may be precipitated in its running form 
by zinc. 

Silver Ore. Take the assay quantity, finely pulverized; roast it 
well in a proper degree ofiheat; stir it often with an iron i od; then add 
about double the quantity of granulated lead, put it ui a covered cruci- 
ble, place it in a furnace, raise the fire gently at first, gradually in- 
crea'sing it, till the metal begins to work. If it appears too thick, add 
a little more lead; if it should boil too rapid, diminish the fire. By de- 
grees the surface will be covered with a mass of scoria; then, careful- 
ly stir it with an iron hgok heated, especially towards the border lest 
any of the ore should remain undissolved; and if what is adherent to 
the hook, when raised from the crucible, melts quickly again, and the 
extremity of the hook, after it is grown cold, is covered with a thin, 
shining, smooth crust, the scorification is perfect; but, on the contra- 
ry, if while'stirring it, any considerable clamminess is perceived in the 
scoria, and when it adheres to the hook, though red hot, and appears 
imequally tinged, and seems dusty, or rough, Avith grains interspersed 
here and there, the scorification is incomplete; in .consequence of 
which, the fire should be increased a little, and what adheres to the 
hook should be gently beaten off", and returned with a small ladl#into 
the crucible. When the scorification is perfect, the m^etal should be 
poured into a cone, previously rubbed with a little tallow, and when it 
becomes cold, the scoria may be separated by a few strokes of a ham- 
mer. 

In the humid waij. Boil vitreous silver ore in diluted nitrous acid, 
using about twenty-five times its weight, until the sulphur is quite ex- 
hausted. Precipitate tlie silver from the solution by marine acid, or 
common salt; one hundred grains of this precipitate, contains seventy- 
five of real silver; if it contains any gold, it vvill remain undissolved. 
Fixed alkalies precipitate the earthy matters, and the Prussian alkali 
will show if any other metal is contained in the solution. 

By cupellation. Take the assay quantity ofore, roast and grind it 
with an equal portion of litharge, divide it into two or three parts, and 
wrap each up in a small piece of paper; put a cupel previously season- 
ed under a muffle, with about six times the quantity of lead upon it. 
When the lead begins to work, carefully put one of the papers upon it, 
and after this is absorbed, put on a second, and so on till the whole is 
introduced; then raise the fire, and as the scoria is formed, it will be 
taken up by the cupel, and at last the silver will remain alone. This 
will be the produce of the assay, unless the lead contains a small por- 
tion of silver which may be discovered by putting an equal quantity of 
the same lead on another cupel, and working it olf at the same time; if 
any silver be produced it must be deducted from the assay. 

To assay the value of Silver. To ascertain the purity of silver, mix 
it with a quantity of lead proportionate to the supposed portion of alloy: 
test this mixture, and afterwards weigh the remaining button of silver. 
Ti-iis is the same process as refining silver by cupellation. 

Suppose the mass of silver to be examined, consists of twelve equal 
parts, called pennyweights; so that if an ingot weighs an ounce, each 



tradesman's guide. G3 

of the parts will be one-twelfth of an ounce. Thus, if the mass of sil- 
ver be pure, it is called silver of twelve pennyweights; if it contains 
one-twelfth part of its weight of alloy, it is called silver of eleven pen- 
nyweights; if two-twelfths alloy, it is called ten pennyweights; which 
parts of pure silver are called fine pennyweights. Assayers give the 
name pennyweights, to a weight equal to twenty real grams, which 
must not be confounded with the ideal weig^its. Assayer's grains are 
called fine. An ingot of fine silver, or silver of twelve pennyweights, 
contains, then, two hr.ndred eiglity-eight fine grains; if this ingot con- 
tains one-two hundred eighty-eighth of alloy, it is silver of eleven peimy- 
weights, twenty-three grains; if four-two hundred eighty-eighths of alloy, 
eleven pennyweights, twenty grains, &c. A certain real weight must 
be taken to represent the assay weights: for example, thirty-six real 
grains reprresent twelve fine pennyweights, this subdivided into a num- 
ber of other smaller weights, represent fractions of fine pennyweights, 
and grains. Thus, eighteen real grains represent six fine pennyweights; 
three real grains, one fine pennyweight, or twenty-four grains; a real 
grain and a half, represents twelve fine grains: one-thirty 'Second of a 
real grain, represents a quarter of a fine grain, which is only one-sev- 
en hundred fifty-second part of a mass of twelve pennyweights. 

Double assay of Silver. The silver for the assay, should be taken 
from opposite sides of the ingot, and tried on a touchstone. As- 
say^ know very nearly the value of silver by the look of the ingot; 
much better, by the test of the touchstone. The quantity of lead to 
be added is regulated by the portion of alloy, which is in general, cop- 
per: heat the cupel red hot for iialf an hour, before any metal is put 
upon it, which expels all moisture. When it is almost white by heat, 
put in the lead, increase the heat till the lead becomes red hot, smoking 
and agitated by a motion of all its parts, called its circulation. Then, 
put the silver on the cupel, and continue the fire, till the silver enters the 
lead. When the mass circulates well, diminishthe heat by closing more 
or less the door of the assay furnace. Regulate the heat, that the metal 
on its surface may appear convex and ardent, while the cupel is less 
red, that the smoke shall rise to the roof of the muffle, that undulations 
shall be made in all directions, and that the middle of the metal shall 
appear smooth, with a small circle of litharge, w4iich is continually im- 
bibed by the cupel. When the lead and alloy is entirely absorbed by 
the cupel, the silver becomes bright and shining, when it is said to 
lighten; when, if the operation has been well performed, the silver will 
be covered with rainbow colours, which quickly undulate and cross 
each other, and then the buttons becomes fixed and soUd. 

The dimination of weight shows the quantity of alloy. As all lead contains a small por- 
tion of Sliver, an equal weight with that used in the assay, is tested off, and the product de- 
ducted fitom the assay weight. This portion is called the witness. 

To assay plated metals. Take a determinate quantity of the plated 
metal; put it into an earthen vessel, with a sufficient quantity of the 
above menstruum, and place it in a gentle heat. When the silver is 
stripped, it must be collected with common salt; the calx tested with 
lead, and the estimate made according to the product of the silver. 

Ores and Earths containing Gold. The general method is by 
amalgamation. Take a proper quantity, reduce it to powder, add about 
one-tenth of its weight of pure quicksilver, and triturate the whole inaa 



64 THE ARTIST AND 

iron mortar. The attraction which subsists between the gold and 
quicksilver, quickly unites them in the form of an amalgam, which is 
pressed through chamois leather; the gold is easily separatedfrom this 
amalgam by exposure to a proper degree of heat, which evaporates 
the quicksilver, and leaves the gold. 

This evaporation should be made with luted vessels; and this is the foundation of all ope- 
rations by which gold is obtained from the rich mines of Peru. 

2. Heat red hot, a quantity of gold sand, quench it in water; repeat 
two or three times, and the colour of the sand will become a reddish 
brown. Now mix it with twice its weight of litharge, and revive the 
litharge into lead, by adding a small portion of charcoal dust, exposing 
it to a proper degree of heat; when the lead revives, the. gold is sepa- 
rated from the sand; and the freeing of the gold from the lead must 
afterwards be performed by cupeUation. 

Metallic ores containing gold are sometimes assayed as follows: — mix two parts of the 
ore, well pounded and washed, with one and a half of litharge, and three of glass: cover the 
whole with common salt; melt it in a smith's forge, in a covered crucible; then open the cru- 
cible, put a nail into it, and continue to do so till the iron is no longer attacked. The lead is 
thus precipitated which contains the gold, and is then separated by cupeUation 

Humid assay of Gold mixed with martial pyrites. Ore dissolved 
in twelve times its weight of diluted nitrous acid, gradually add^; 
place it in a proper degree of heat; the soluble parts are taken up, and 
leaves the gold untouched, with the insoluble matrix, from which it is 
separated by aqua-regia. The gold is again separated from the 
aqua-regia by pouring ether upon it; the other takes up the gold, and 
by being burnt off, leaves it in its metallic state. The solution may 
contain u-on, copper, manganese, calcareous earth, or argil; if evapo- 
irated to dryness, and the residuum heated to redness for half an hour, 
volatile alkali v/ill extract the copper; dephlogisticated nitrous acid, 
the earths; acetous acid, the m.anganese; and marine acid, the calx of 
iron. The sulphur floats on the first solution, from which it is sepa- 
rate d by filtration. 

Parting of Gold and Silver. Gold and silver equally resisting the 
action of fire and lead, must therefore be separated by other means, 
which is eftected by different menstrua. Nitrous acid, marine acid, 
and sulphur, which cannot attack gold, operate upon silver, and these 
are the principal agents employed in the process of parting. Parting 
by nitrous acid is the most convenient; this is called simple parting, 
and is generally the method prefeiTed by goldsmiths. That made 
by the marine acid is by cementation, and called concentrated part- 
ing; that by sulphur, is made by fusion and called dry parting. 

Parting by Aqua-Fortis. The following directions are to be re- 
garded; fii-st, must be in a proper proportion, viz. three parts of silver 
to one of gold, though a mass of silver containing two parts of silver 
to one of gold maybe parted. The quality of the metal is determin- 
ed by assayers, who make a comparison upon a touchstone, between 
it and needles composed of gold and silver in graduated proportions, 
and properly marked, which are csWed proof needles. If the silver is 
not to the gold, as three to one, the mass is improper for the opera- 
tion, unless more silver is added; besides, the aqua-fortis must be very 
pure, containhig neither vitriolic or marine acid. Granulate the met- 
al previous to parting, by melting it in a crucible; then pour it mto 



tradesman's guide. Q6 

a vessel of water, giving the water a rapid circular motio^lwrith a stick* 
The vessels used a.re called parting. 2'lasses,fi'ee from flaws, and well an- 
nealed. The glasses are apt to crack or exposure to cold, or when even 
touched by the hand. The bottoms are secured by some operators, 
by a coating made of new slacked lime, with beer and white of eggs 
spread on a cloth, and wrapped round the bottom, over which they ap- 
ply a composition of clay and hair. The glasses are placed in vessels 
containing water, supported by trivets, with a fire under them: thus if 
a glass breaks, the contents are caught in the vessel of water. If the 
heat communicated to the water is too great, regulate it by pouring cold 
water carefully down the side of the vessel into a parting glass fifteen 
inches high and ten or tv/elve inches wide at the bottom, placed in a 
copper pan twelve inches wide at bottom, fifteen inches wide at top, 
^aiid ten inches high; assayers generally operate with about eighty oun- 
ces of metal, with twice as much aqua-fortis. 

The aqua-fortis should be so strong as to act sensibly on silver, 
when cold, but not violently. Apply but little heat at first, as the 
Kquor is apt to swell and rise over the vessel: when the acid is nearly 
saturated, increase the heat. When the solution ceases (which is 
known by the effervescence discontinuing) pour the liquor off; if any 
grains appear entire, add more aqua-fortis, till all the silver is dissolved. 
If the operation is performed slowly, the remaining gold will have dis- 
tinct <inasses. The gold appears black after parting; its parts have 
no adhesion together; because the silver dissolved from it has left ma- 
ny interstices: to give them more solidity, and improve their colour, 
they are put into a test under a muffle, and made red hot; after which 
they contract and become more solid, and the gold resumes its colour 
and lustre. It is then called ^rain gold. If the operation has been 
hastily performed, the gold will have the appearance of black mud or 
powder, which must be melted after well Avashing. 

Recover the siU'er, by precipitating it from aqua-fortis by raedP=; of pure copper. No pre* 
cipitation will take place, if the solution is perfectly saturated, till a few drops of aqua-fortis 
are added. Wash the precipitate of silver well with boiling water, fuse with nitre and test 
off with lead. 

Painting by Cementation, Bricks powdered and sifted, four parts, 
one part green vitriol, calcined till it becomes red, and one part of 
common salt; made into a firm paste, with a little water. 

Reduce the gold to be cemented into plates as thin as money. Put 
at the bottom of the cementing pot, a stratum of the above paste, half 
an inch thick; cover with plates of gold; and so the strata are placed 
alternately: cover the whole with a lid, which is luted with a mixture 
of clay and sand. Place the pot in a furnace or oven, heat gradual- 
ly, till it becomes red hot; keep it in the oven twenty-four hours; the 
heat must not melt the gold; then suffer the crucible to cool; sepa- 
rate carefully the gold from the cement, and boil at different times in 
a large quantity of pure water. Then assay upon a touchstone or 
otherwise; if not sufficiently pure, cement a second time. 

In this process the vitriolic acid of'the bricks, and the calcined vitriol, decomposes the com» 
raon salt, during the cementation, by uniting to its alkaline base, ^vhile the marine acid be- 
comes concentrated by the heat; and dissolves the silver alloyed with the gold. This is a 
very troublesome process, l hough it succeeds when the portion of silver is so small that it 
•^vould be defended from the actio* of aqua-fortis by the superabundant goldj but is little used 
«xcept to extract silver, or base metals, from the surface of gold, and thus giving to an alloy- 
cd metal, the colour and appearance of pure gold, 

I 



66 THE ARTIST A^iD 

3'f^y Paytins^ As the dry parting is ever troublesome as well as* 
expensive, it ought not to be undertaken, but on a considerable quan- 
tity of silver alloyed v.'ith gold. Granulate the metal; from one-eighth 
to one-fifth (as it is rich or poor in gold) reserve; mingle well the rest 
with an eighth of powdered sulphur; put into a crucible; keep a gen- 
tle fire, that the silver before melting, may be thoroughly penetrated 
by the sulphur; the sulphur will dissipate, if the fire is hastily urged. 
If to sulphuretted silver infusion, pure silver is added, the latter falls to 
the bottom, and forms there a distinct fluid, not miscible with the oth- 
er. The particles of gold having no affinity with the sulphuretted sil- 
ver, are joined to the pure silver whenever they come in contact, and 
are thus transferred from the former into the latter, more or less per- 
fectly, as the pure silver is more or less thoroughly diffiised through 
the mixture. For this use a part of the granulated silver is reserved. 
Bring the sulphuretted mass into fusion, keep melting for nearly an 
hour in a covered crucible, throw in one-third of the reserved grains, 
which, when melted, stir the whole well, that the fresh silver may be 
distributed through the mixed, to collect the gold from it, which is per- 
formed by a wooden rod; which repeat, till the whole reserved metal . 
is introduced. The sulphuretted silver appears in fusion, of a dark 
brown colour; after it has been in fusion tor some time, a part of the 
sulphur having escaped from the top, the surface becomes white, and 
some bright drops of silver, about the size of a pea, are perceived on 
it. When this takes place, the fire must be immediately discontinu- 
ed, or more and more of the silver^ thus losing its sulphur, would sub- 
side and mingle with the part at the bottom, (perhaps as much as was 
imsulphuretted from the mass,) by a chisel or hammer, or more perfect- 
ly by placing the whole mass with its bottom upwards in a crucible, 
fhe sulphuretted part quickly melts, leaving unmelted that which con- 
•tains the gold. The sulphuretted silver is assayed, by keeping a por- 
tion of it in fusion, till the sulphur is dissipated, and then by dissolv- 
ing it in aqua-fortis. 

If it should still be found to contain gold, it must be subjected to the same treatment as be- 
fore. The gold thus collected may be concentrated into a smaller part, by repeating the whole 
process, when it may be parted by aqua-tbrtis, without too much expense. 

To determine the quantity of gold. If its specific gravity is 17,157, 
it is lawful coin. The specific quality of pure gold is 19,3. Copper, 
silver, and most other metals which are alloyed with gold, may be ea- 
sily separated from gold by nitric acid: for if the alloy be in fine fil- 
ings, the nitric acid will dissolve the other metals, and leave the gold 
in a black powder. This powder may be separated and melted down 
in a pure mass; but the common' method adopted by artists is, to melt 
the alloy with sulphuret of antimony. The othej metals become snl- 
phurets, and the gold will unite with the antimony, and all fall to the 
bottom of the crucible. After cooling it may be separated. Now 
melt the alloy of gold and antimony, boil it at a white heat, and the 
antimony will become volatilized, and fly off". 

To obtain silver j)ure from alloy. Put some nutric acid in a wine 
glass diluted with an equal bulk of water; drop into it a six cent piece, 
and let it remain till action ceases. Now take out the undissolved 
silver, and put in a plate, or a coat of perfectly clean bright copper. 
The silver will be precipitated after a short time. Wash the powder 



T]RADES5IA?J'S <3UJ[DE. 67 

several times; and put a little liquid ammonia inte the water for the, 
first washings. Now melt down tli3 powder into a solid mass, v/hicli 
will be pure silver. 

Silver coin is alloyed with copper as 12 1-3 to 1. 

Weight of-.netds. Platina is twenty-three times heavier than wa- 
ter. Gold, nineteen; silver, eleven; quicksilver, fourteen; copper, 
nine; iron, eight; tin, seven; lead, eleven; nickel, nine; zinc, seven. 

Method of ascertaining the specific gravitif of bodies. The instru- 
ment generally used for obtaining the specific gravities, is called the 
hydrostatical balance; it does not differ much from the common balance. 
The way to find the specific gravity o£a sohd heavier than water, as a 
piece of metal, is this: weigh the body first in air, in the usual way, 
then weigh it when it is plunged in water, and observe how much it 
loses of its weight in this fluid, and dividing the former weight by tlje 
loss sustained, the quotient is the specific gravity of the body, com- 
pared with that of water. A piece of gold may be tried by weighing 
it first in air, and then in water, and, if upon dividing the weight in air, 
by the loss in vv'ater, the quotient comes to be about seventeen, the 
gold is good; if eighteen, or nearly nineteen, the gold is very fine; if 
less than seventeen, it is too much alloyed with other metal. The 
same principle is universal. Hence we see the reason why boats or 
other vessels float on water; they sink just so low, that the weight of 
the vessel, with its contents, is equal to the quantity of water which it 
displaces. 

The method of ascertaining the specific gravity of bodies, was discovered by Archimedes* 
Hiero, kin? of Sicily, having given a workman a quantity of pure gold, to make a crown, 
suspected that the artist had kept part -of the gold, and adulterated the cro-mi with a base 
meta!. The king apphes to Archimedes, to discover tlie fraud. The philosopher long studi- 
ed in vain, but at length he accidentally hit upon a method of verifying the king's suspicion. 
Going one day into a bath, he took notice that the water rose in the bath, and immediately re- 
flected that any body of equal bulk with himself, would have raised the water just as much; 
though a body of equal weight, but not of equal bulk, would not raise it so much. From this 
idea he conceived a mode of finding out what he so much wished, and was so transported v/ith 
joy, that he ran out of the bath crying om in the Greek tongue, "I have found it, I have found 
it." As gold was the heaviest of all metals then known, \\e therefore desired a mass of pui-e 
gold, equally heavy with the crown when weighed in air, should be weighed against it in water, 
conjecturing that if the crown was not alloyed it would counterpoise the mass of gold when 
they were both immersed in water, as well as it did when they were weighed in air. On ma- 
king trial, the mass of gold weighed much heavier in water than the crown did, nor was this 
all; when the mass and crown were immersed separately in the same vessel of water, the 
crown raised the water much higher than the mass did, which showed it was alloyed with some 
other lighter metal which increased its bulk. 

On this principle is founded the doctrine of the specific gravities of bodies. 

Half of the civilized employments of man, consists in worldng the 
metals and minerals; civilization depends so much on the discovery 
of the useful metals, that little progress can be made from a savage 
state, without the useful trade of a blacksmith. 

To avoid the inconveniences of exchanging or bartering, men, in 
early ages fixed on metals; as on gold, silver, copper, or iron, for a 
medium of value, so that if one man had too much corn and wanted 
wine, he was obliged to give corn for wine, but he might sell his corn 
for metal, and buy the wine with the metal, at his convenience. Hence 
the origin of money; as it was found inconvenient to weigh metal in 
every transaction, (as Abraham did when he bought the burying 
place for Sarah,) stamps were put on pieces of metal, to indicate theft 
they might be safely received for a srettled ■\^'€ight «r vnltreji. 



Bt>y THi: AliTISt AND 

Viewing the metals in ordinary use, we consider them common pro- 
ductions; but no art is so carious as that of extracting metals from 
the earth, or ore, in which they are buried or concealed; and no dis- 
covery or invention was ever more wonderful. AVorkers of metal im- 
itate nature, when they beat and ivash their ores. No one on looking 
at most of the metallic ores, would suspect them to contain metals, as 
they are apparently the roughest, coarsest, and least desirable stones 
on earth. Research is on the wing of activity, and discoveries of min- 
erals of the greatest utihty. are daily making. We are willing to be- 
lieve there are still in reserve, beneath the surface of the earth, in our 
own country, golden treasures for the enterprising; if not near our 
most frequent walks, yet, in very many places which have never ex- 
perienced the probing effects of a crobar, or the pressure of the foot 
of man. 

CHAPTER XVII. 
THE ART OF WORKING METALS, &c. 

JVfethod of reducing' Iron Ore into malleable Iron. We proceed by 
stamping, washing, &c. the calcine and materials, to separate the ore 
from extraneous matter; then fusing the prepared ore in an open fur- 
nace, and instead of casting it, to suffer it to remain at the bottom of 
the furnace till it becomes cold. 

JVew method of shingling and manufacturing Iron, The ore being 
fused in a reverberating furnace, is conveyed, whilst fluid, into an air 
furnace, where it is exposed to a strong heat, till a bluish flame is ob- 
served on the surface; it is then agitated on the surface, till it loses its 
fusibility, and is collected into lumps called loops. These loops are 
then put into another air furnace, brought to a white or welding heat, 
and then shingled into half-blooms or slabs. They are again expos- 
ed to the air furnace, and the half-blooms taken out and forged into 
anconies, bars, half-flats, and rods for wire; w^hile the slabs are pass- 
ed, when of a w^elding heat, through the grooved rollers. In this way 
of proceeding, it matters not, whether the iron is prepared from cold 
or hot short metal, nor is there any occasion for the use of finery, char- 
coal, coke, chafery, or hollow fire, or any blast by bellows, or other- 
wise: or the use of fluxes in any part of the process. 

To iveld Iron; an approved, method. This consists in the skilful 
bundling of the iron to be welded; in the use of an extraordinary large 
forge hammer; in employing a balling furnace, instead of a hollotv- 
fire or chafery; and in passing the iron, reduced to a melting heat, 
through grooved mill-rollers of different shapes and sizes, as required. 

Common hardening. Iron by being heated red hot, and plunged 
into cold water, acquires a great degree of hardness. This proceeds 
from the coldness of the water which contracts the particles of the iron 
into less space. 

Case hardening. Is a superficial conversion of iron into steel, by 
cementation. It is performed on small pieces of iron, by enclosing 
them in an iron box, containing burnt leather, bone dust, or any other 
carbonic material, and exposing them for some time to a red heat. 
The surface of the iron thus becomes perfectly metallized. Iron thus 
treated is susceptible of the finest polish. 



trades3ian's guide. 69 

To convert Iron into Steel by Cementation. The iron is formed in- 
to bars of convenient size, and then placed in a cementing furnace, 
with a sufficient quantity of cement which is composed of coals of ani- 
mal or vegetable substances, mixed with calcined bones, &c. The 
follovv'ing are very excellent cements; 1. One part of powdered char- 
coal, one half a part of wood ashes, well mixed together. 2. Two 
parts charcoal, moderately powdered, one part of bones, horn, hair or 
skins of animals, burnt in close vessels to blackness and powdered; 
and half a part of v/ood ashes; mix them well together. The bars of 
iron to be converted into steel, are placed upon a stratum of cement, 
and covered all over with the same; and the vessel which contains 
them, closely luted, must be exposed to a red heat for eight or ten 
hours, when the iron will be converted into steel. 

Steel is prepared from bar iron by fusion; which consists in plunging a bar into melted iron, 
and keeping it there for some time, by which process it is converted into good steel. All iron 
wiiich becomes harder by suddenly quenching in cold water, is called steel; and that steel 
which in quenching acquires the gieatcst degree of hardness in the lowest degree of heat, 
and retains tiie greatest strength in and after induration, ought to be considered as the best. 

Improved process of hardening Steel. Articles manufactured of 
steel, for the purpose of cutting, are, almost without An exception 
hardened from the anvil; in other words, they are taken from the forg- 
dr to the hardener, without undergoing any intermediate process; and 
such is the accustomed routine, that the mischief arising has escaped 
, observation. The act of forging produces a strong scale or coating, 
which is spread over the whole of the blade; and to make the evil still 
more formidable, this scale or coating is unequal in substance, vary- 
ing in proportion to the degree of heat communicated to the steel in 
forging; it is, partially, almost impenetrable to the action of water 
when immersed for the purpose of hardening. Hence it is that differ- 
ent degrees of hardness prevail in every razor manufactured; this is 
evidently a positive defect; and so long as it continues to exist, great 
difference of temperature must exist likewise. Razor blades not un- 
frequently exhibit the fact here stated in a very striking manner; what 
are termed clouds, or parts of unequal polish, derive their origin from 
this cause; and clearly and distinctly, or rather distincthj, though not 
clearly show how far this p9,rtial coating has extended, and when the 
action of water has been yielded to, and when resisted. It cannot be 
matter of astonishment, that so few improvements liave been made in 
the hardening of steel, when the evil here complained of, so universal- 
ly obtains, as almost to warrant the supposition that no attempt has ever 
been made to remove it. The remedy, however, is easy and simple 
in the extreme, and so evidently efficient in its application, that it can- 
not but excite surprise, that in the present highly improved state of our 
manufactures, such a communication should be made as a discovery 
entirely new. Instead, therefore, of the customary mode of harden- 
ing the blade from the anvil, let it be passed immediately from the 
hands of the forger to the 2riuder; a slight application of the stone 
will remove the whole of the scale or coating, and the razor \ull then 
be properly prepared to undergo the operation of hardening witli ad- 
vantage. It will be easily ascertained, that steel in tiiis state, heats in 
the fire with greater regularity, and that when immersed, the obstacles 
being removed to the immediate action of the water on the body of the 



70 THE ARTIST AND 

steel, the latter becomes equally hard, from one extremity to the other. 
To this may be added, that as fhe loicest 'possihlehecit at lukich steel 
becomes hardy u indubitably the best, the mode here recommended 
will be found the only one by which the process of hardening can be 
effected with a less portion of fire than is or can be required in any 
other v/ay. These observations are decisive, and will in all probabil- 
ity, tend to establish in general use, what cannot but be regarded as a 
very important improvement in the manufacturing of edged steel 
instruments. 

English Cast Steel, The finest kind of steel, called English cast 
steel, is prepared by breaking to pieces bhstered steel, and then melt- 
ing it in a crucible -with a flux composed of carbonaceous and vitrifia- 
ble ingredients. The vitrifiable ingredient is used only inasmuch as 
a fusible body, which flows over the surface of the metal in the cnaci- 
ble, and prevents the access of the oxygen of the atmosphere. Brok- 
en' glass is sometimes used for this purpose. * 

When thoroughly fused it is cast into ingots, which by gentle heat- 
ing and careful hammering, are tilted into bars. By this process the 
steel oecomss more highly carbonized in proportion to the quanti- 
ty of flux, and in consequence is more brittle and fusible than before. 
Hence, it surpasses all other steel in uniformity of texture, hardness, * 
and closeness of grain, and is the material employed in all the finest ar- 
ticles of English cutlery. 

To make edge tools from Cast Steel and Iron. This method con* 
sists in fixing a clean piece of wrought iron, brought to a welding heat, 
in the centre of a mould, and then pouring in melted steel, so as en- 
tirely to envelop the iron; and then forging the mass into the shape 
required. 

To colour Steel blue. The steel must be finely polished on its sur- 
face, and then exposed to an uniform degree of heat. There are three 
ways of colouring: first, by a flame producing no soot, as spirit of 
wine; secondly, by a hot plate of iron; and thirdly, by wood ashes. 

As a very regular degree of heat is necessary, wood ashes for fire 
work bears the preference. The work must be covered over with 
them, and carefully watched; when the colour is sufficiently heighten- 
ed, the work is perfect. This colour is occasionally taken off \dth a 
very diluted marine acid. 

Useful alloy of Gold and Platinum. Seven and a half dr. pure gold, 
and half dr. platmum. The platinum must be added when the gold is 
perfectly melted. The two metals will combine intimately, forming 
an alloy rather whiter than pme gold, but remarkably ductile and elas- 
tic; it is also less perishable than pure gold, or jeweller's gold, but 
more readily fusible than that metal. 

These quaUties must render this alloy an object of great interest to 
workers in metals. For springs when steel cannot be used, it will 
prove exceedingly advantageous. 

It is a curious circumstance, that the alloy of gold and platina is sol- 
uble in nitric acid, which does not act on either of the metals in a sep- 
arate state. It is remarkable, too, that the alloy has very nearly the 
colour of platinum, even when composed of eleven parts of gold to one 
of the former metal. 

Ring Gold. Six dwts. twelve grs. Spanish copper, three dwts, six« 



tkabesma:; s guise. 



n 



teen grs. fine silver, and one ounce five pennyweights gold coin. 

Tomhach. Sixteen lbs. copper, one lb. tin, and one lb. zinc. 

lied Tomhach, Five and a half lbs. copper, and half a lb. zinc. 
The copper must be msed in a crucible before the zinc is added. This 
alloy is of a reddish colour, and possesses more lustre and is of great- 
er ddrability, than copper. 

Wkite Tomhach. Copper and arsenic put together in a crucible, 
and melted, covering the surface v.ith muriate of soda, to prevent 
oxydation, will form a white brittle alloy. . 

Gun Metal 1. One hundred twelve pounds Bristol brass, four- 
teen pounds zinc, and seven pounds blocktin. 2. Nine parts copper, 
and one part tin. The above compounds are those, used in the manu- 
facture of small and great brass guns, swivels, &c. 

Specula of Telescopes. Seven lbs. copper, and when fused, add 
three lbs. of zinc, and four lbs. of tin. These metals will combuie 
and form a beautiful alloy, of great lustre, and of a light yellow colour, 
fitted to be made into specula for telescopes. Some use only copper 
and grain tin in the proportion of two lbs. to fourteen and a half ounces. 

To distinguish Steel from Iron. Let fall one drop of nitric acid 
upon a piece of polished iron, and another upon a piece of poHshed 
«teel. The acid on the iron will be hmpid or whitish, that on the steel 
will become dark brown or black. 

It is not neccssaiy to polish the iron or steel to try its hardening 
fjualities — if a spot on a coarse bar of iron or steel be filed bright it 
will be sufficient. 

Compounds of Metals. Four ounces of bismuth; two ounces and 
a half lead; and one ounce and a half tin. Put the bismuth into a 
crucible, and when it is melted, add the lead and tin. This will form 
an alloy fusible at the temperature of boiling water. 

2. Zinc, bismuth, lead; of each one ounce. 

This alloy is so very fusible, that it will remain in a state effusion 
,if put on a sheet of paper and held over the flame of a candle or lamp. 

3. Lead, three parts; tin, two parts; bismuth, five parts; will form 
an alloy fusible at IQ?*^ Fahrenheit, peculiarly applicable to casting, or 
the taking of impressions from gems, seals, &c. In making casts 
\vith this and similar alloys, it is necessary to use the metal at as low 
a temperature as possible; otherwise the v/ater adhering to the things 
from which the casts are to be taken, forms vapour, and produces bub- 
bles. The fused metal should be poured into a teacup, and allowed 
to cool, till just ready to set at the edges, when it must be poured into 
the mould. In taking impressions from gems, seals, &c. the fused 
alloy should be placed on paper or pasteboard, and stin-ed about 
till it has, by cooling, attained the consistence of paste, at which mo- 
ment the die, gem, or seal should be stamped on it, and a very sharp 
impression will be obtained. 

Bath Metal, is a mixture of four ounces and a half of zinc, and one 
pound of brass. 

Brass, is composed of four and a half pounds copper; one and a 
half pounds of zinc. 

Brass that is to be cast into plates from which pans and kettles are 

. to, be made and wire is to be drawn, must, instead of using the zinc in 

a pure state, be composed of fifty-six pounds of the finest calamine, 




iy2 THE ARTIST AND 

or ore of zinc; and tbirty-four pounds of copper. Old brass which has 
been frequently exposed to the action of fire, when mixed with cop- 
per and calamine, renders the brass far more ductile, and fitter for 
making line Vvire, than it woukhjse without it; but tlie German brass, 
particularly that of Nuremburgh, is, when drawn into wire, said to be 
far preferable to any made in England, for the strings of musical in- 
struments. 

Pinchback. Three ounces of pure copper; and one ounce of zinc. 
The zinc must not be added till the copper is in a state of fusion. 
Some use only half this quantity of zinc, in which proportion the alloy 
is more easily worked, especially in the mxaking of jewelry. 

2. One ounce of brass; and two ounces of copper, fused together 
under a coat of charcoal dust. 

Princess JUetal. 1. Three ounces of copper, and one ounce of 
zinc; or eight ounces of brass, and one of zinc. 

2. Four ounces of copper, and two ounces of zinc. In this last 
the copper must be fused before the zinc is added; when they have com- 
bined, a very beautiful and useful alloy is formed called Prince Rupert's 

Metal. 

Bell Metal. Six parts of copper, and two parts of tin. 

These preparations are the most approved for bells, throughout 
Europe and in China, in the union of the two metals, the combina- 
tion is so complete, that the specific gravity of the alloy is greater 
than that of the two metals in an uncombined state. 

2. Ten parts of copper, and two parts of tin. It may in general be 
observed, that a less proportion of tin is used for making churchbells, 
than clockbells; and that a httle zinc is added for the bells of repeat- 
ing watches, and other small bells. 

Tutania, or Britannia Metal, Four ounces of plate brass, and 
four ounces of tin; when in fusion, add tour ounces bismuth, and four 
ounces regulus of antimony. This is the composition, or hardening 
that is to be added at discretion, to melted tin, until it has acquired, 
the requisite degree of colour and hardness. 

2. Melt too ether, two pounds of plate brass; two pounds of tin; two 
pounds of bismuth; two pounds of regulus of antimony; two pounds 
of a mixture of copper and arsenic, either by cementation or melting. 
This composition is to be added at discretion, to melted tin. 

3. One pound copper, one pound tin, and two pounds regulus of 
antimony, ^^ith or without a little bismuth. 

4. Eight ounces of shruff brass; two pounds regulus of antimony; 
and twelve ounces of tin. 

German Tutania, Two dracluns of copper; one ounce regulus of 
antimony; and twelve ounces of tin. 

Spanish Tutania. Eight ounces scrap iron, or steel; one pound 
antimony; and three ounces nitre. The iron or steel must be heated 
to a white heat, and the antim.ony and nitre must be added in small 
portions. Melt and harden one pound tin with two ounces of this 
compound. . 

2. Melt together four ounces antimony, one ounce oi arsenic, and 
two pounds tin. The first of these Spanish alloys would be a beauti- 
ful metal, if arsenic were added. 

Engestroom Ttitania. Four parts copper, eight parts regulus ot 




TE.AD£S3IAX':3 G'UlfeP:. 73 

aiiiimouy, and one part bismuth: when added to one liundred pajrts tiny 
this compound will be ready for use. 

Queeii's Metal. Four and a half pounds tin, half a pound bismuth, 
half a pound antimony, half a pound lead. This alloy is used for ma- 
kin"- tea-pots and other vessels which are required to imitate silver. 
It retains its lustre to the last. . 

2. One hundred pounds tin, eight pounds regulus of antimony, one 
pound bismuth, and four pounds copper. 

White Metal, Ten ounces lead, six ounces bLsniuth, and four 
drachms regulus of antimonyi 

2. Two pounds regulus of antimony; eight ounces brass; and ten 
ounces tin. 

Common Hard White Metal. One pound brass, one and a half 
ounces zinc, and half an ounce of tin. 

Metal for Tinning. To one pound malleable iron, at white heat; 
add five ounces regulus of antimony; and twenty-four pounds of the 
purest Molucca tin. This alloy polishes v/ithcut the blue tint, and is 
free from lead or arsenic. 

Metal for Flute Key Valves. Four ounces lead, and tv/o Ounces 
antimony, fused m a crucible and cast into a bar. It is used by liute 
manufacturers (when turned into small buttons in a lathe) for ii^aldug 
valves to stop the key holes of flutesv 

To burn metals. Procure a glass jar, such as is generally used for 
fieffiagrating the gases, and liil it with oxymiuiatic acid gas. If nickel, 
arsenic, or bismuth in powder, be thrown into this gas; and the tem- 
perature of the atmosphere be not lower than 70 ° the metal will in- 
flame, and continue to burn with the most brilliant combustion. 

Prepare a jar of chlorme, (oxymuriatic gas) and suspend in it a piece 
of copper foil; it will immediately inflame, and afford a very striking 
spectacle. When subsided, it it will form a substance exactly simi- 
lar to the native muriate of copper, brought from Peru. 

2. Make a hole in the side of a large piece of charcoal; put into it 
some iron fJings, iron wire, zinc shavings, lead shavings, &c.; fill a 
glass-holder with oxygen, provided with a tin or lead tube, term.inating 
in a pipe stem: hold the charcoal in a suitable position to receive the 
cuiTent of oxygen upon the metals. Let an assistant hold the flame 
of a candle between the metals and the pipe, till the current of oxygen 
drives the flame into the coal; then remove the candle and continue 
the current of oxygen, enlarging or contracting it at pleasure, by turn- 
ing the stop. The metals will burn very brilliantly, each exhibiting its 
own peculiar flame. 

3. Coil up a piece of flne iron wire about the size of sowing thread; 
wind it spirally and closely around a pipe stem; let the coil be three 
or four inches long; the upper end fitted into a cork, which suits the 
mouth of an eight ounce phial. Fill the phial nearly vrith oxygen, 
leaving water in it to cover the bottom an inch thick, in order to de- 
fend it from being broken with the globules of hot o?iyde of iron v/hich 
fall upon it: set the phial on the table, well stopped \s-ith another cork: 
now tie a small knot of silk thread on the loAver end of the coil; iiold 
a piece of brimstone in a candle till it melts a small spot; blow out the 
blaze of brimstone, and dip in the knot of thread. Be certain that the 
thread and melted brimstone which adheres to it, do not exceed in 



t4 TH£ ARTIST A^^D 

siz^^ largt pin head, Now pull out the cork; hold the thumb ovef 
the mouth, and let an assistant steady the pliial; light the brimstone 
match; put the coil of wire quickly into the phial, fitting in the cork to 
which it is attached: the phial will soon send off brilhant sparks, and 
make a beautiful exhibition. 

4, If a piece of wire, about twice as large as the wire of the coil^ 
be flattened with a hammer, and fitted into the cork, so as to extend 
down through the centre of the coil, and set on fire at the same time, 
in the same manner Avith the coil, it will present a very curious ap- 
pearance: the central wire will burn with a large globular flame, while 
a smaller globular flame will perform evolutions around it, resembling 
the motion of a planet while revolving aroimd the sun. We are taught 
by the foregoing experiment, if the oxygen of the air was not reduced 
in power by hydrogen, iron itself would not resist combustion. 

To refine Pewter. Take fine pewter, melt it in a crucible. When 
done, project over it at several times some nitre, till you see it 
calcined. Then pound it into powder, and mix it with an equal quan- 
tity of charcoal pulverized very fine. If in this condition you melt it 
again, it will resume its form of pewter, only refined in a much supe- 
rior degree. 

Common Pewter. Seven pounds tin, one pound lead, six ounces 
eopper; and two ounces zinc. The. copper must be fused before the 
other ingredients are added. 

Best Peicter. One hundred parts tin, and seventeen parts regulus 
of antimony. 

Hard Pewter. Twelve pounds tin, one pound regulus of antimo- 
ny, and four ounces copper. 

Common Solder. Two pounds lead, and one pound tin. The lead 
must be melted before the tin is added. This alloy, when heated by 
a hot iron, and applied to tinned iron with powdered rosin, acts a& a 
cement or solder; it is also used to join leaden pipes. 

Soft Solder. Two pounds tin, and one pound lead. 

Solder for Steel Joints. Nineteen pennyweights fine silver, one 
pennyweight copper, and two pennyweights brass, melted together un- 
der a coat of charcoal dust. This solder has several advantages over 
the usual zinc solder, or brass, when employed in soldering cast steel, 
&c. as it fuses with less heat, and its whiteness has a better appear- 
ance than brass. 

Silver Solder for Jewellers, Nineteen penny^veights fine silver, 
one pennyweight copper, and ten pennyweights brass. 

Silver Solder for Plating: Ten pennyweights brass, and one ounce 
pure silver. 

Gold Solder. Twelve pennyweights pure gold, two pennyweights 
pufe silver, and four pennyweights copper. 

Brass Solder for Iron. Thin plates of brass are to be melted fce- 
tween the pieces that are to be joined. If the work be very fine, as 
'when two leaves of a broken saw are to be brazed together, cover it 
with pulverized borax, melted with water, that it may mcorp orate with 
the brass powder, which is added to it; the piece must then be exposed 
to the fire, without touching the coals, and heated till the brass is 
seen to run. 

Bronze. Seven pounds pure copper, three pounds zinc, and two 



tradesman's guide. 7» 

pounds tin. The copper must be fused before the other ingredients 
are added. These metals, when combined, form the bronze so much 
used, both in ancient and modern times. 

Mock Platina. Melt together, eight ounces brass, and five ounces • 
zinc. 

Powder G-old. Verdigris, eight oances, tatty, four ounces, borax, 
nitre, of each two ounces, corrosis^e sublimate, two drachms, made 
mto a paste with oil, and melted together: used in japan work, as a 
gold colour. 

True Gold Powder. Grain gold, one ounce, quicksilver nearly 
boiling, six ounces; rub together; then either distil off the quicksilver, 
or corrode it away v/ith spirits of nitre, and heat the black powder that 
is left red hot. 

2. Grain gold, one ounce, dissolve in a mixture of spirit of nitre, 
sixteen ounces, with common salt, four ounces; add to the clear so- 
lution, green vitriol, four ounces; dissolve in water; wash the precipi- 
tate, and heat it red hot. 

3. Dissolve gold in aqua-regia, and draw off the acid by distillation; 
used in painting, gilding, &c. 

Tutciiag. Bismuth, one pound, tin, two pounds; melt together; 
used for buttons and vessels. 

Zaffre. One part of roasted cobalt, ground with two or three parts 
of very pure quartzose sand; is either in a cake or reduced to powder: 
used as a blue colour for painting glass. 

Purple Precipitate; Cassin^s Purple. Solution of gold in aqua-re- 
gia, one ounce, distilled water, one pound and a half; hang it in the 
liquid sups of tin. 

2. By precipitating the diluted solution of gold, by dyer's spirit, 
will communicate a purple colour to glass, when melted in an open 
vessel. In a close vessel the glass receives no colour. 

Tin and Copper. Scrape a piece of copper well with a knife, and 
rub it over with sal ammoniac; then heat the copper over clean 
coals, which will not emit any smoke; at the same time rubbing it over 
with rosin. While hot and thus cleansed with the sal ammoniac and 
rosin, rub tin upon it in its solid state, which being melted by the heat 
of the copper, will adhere to it, giving it a silvery white surface. 

Copper vessels are tinned inside by a similar process; and any ingenious person may re- 
pair them in this way when the tin has rubbed o(F. 

JMeihod of tempering' edge tools that are of too brittle a quality. 
Plunge them into boiling fat for two hours, then take them out, and 
let them cool gradually. They will retain their hardness without being 
brittle. 

Transmutation of Iron into the finest German Steel. Take clean 
soot, one pound, oak wood ashes, twelve ounces, and four ounces of 
pounded garlics. Boil all together in twelve pounds common water, 
till reduced to four pounds. Strain this, and dip in it the iron pigs, 
which you will afterwards stratify with the following cement, viz: Take 
burnt wood coals, otherwise called cokes, and quick lime of each three 
pounds, soot dried and calcinated in an iron pan, one pound, decrip- 
itate salt, four ounces. Make of this and your iron several beds alter- 
nately, one over another; and having well luted the vessel in which 
jou shall have made those beds of iron and cement, give them p. rey^r 



76 - PHE ARTIST A Sy 

berating fire, f'^i' tlirec timss tu-eiity-four iiour.^, and the operation is 

Of 2,inc or Spdfer, and Us various uses. Zinc combined with 
gold in equal proportions, forms a hard white compound metal, that 
admits of a fine polish, and maybe advantageously manufaciured into 
specula for optical instruments. 

Zinc and tin melted together form a kind of pewter. 

Spelter and copper readily imite in the Mre, provided the combus- 
tion of the former be carefully prevented during the process. In this 
state it forms a metal distinguished by the name of yellow copper; but 
which is divided into several sorts according to the respective propor- 
tions contained in the alloy. Thus three parts of copper and one of 
zinc, constitute brass; five or six of copper and one of one zinc, form 
pinchback. Tombac is composed of a still larger proportion of cop- 
per than pinchback; is of a deep red, and bears the name of its in- 
ventor. Prince's metal requires a still larger proportion of zinc than 
either of the preceding compositions. 

Test for JMetaJs. Let a stream of sulphuretted hydrogen gas pass 
into a phial of liquid ammonia; the best method is to put the ammonia 
into a broad mouthed phial, filling it about half tVll; turn the phial in an 
oblique position, and extend the beak of the retort to the bottom of it. 
Wet tow may be wound about the neck of the retort when it enters the 
mouth of the phial to prevent the escape of the gas; or if a little decs 
escape it is immaterial, for we should become sufficiently acquainted 
with this gas to detect it by its smell; now pour some of the liquid in- 
to a solution of copperas and another of blue vitriol. 

For many metals this is a perfect tost; it precipitates all metallic 
solutions with such diiferent colours, when applied as a test, that, with 
Collateral tests, almost any metal may be detected. 

To fxiva fools such a temper as will enable them to saw marble. 
Make the tool hot in the fire, and when red cherry colour, take it off 
from the fire, rub it with a piece of candle, and steep it immediately 
in good strong vinegar, in which some soot must be diluted. 

The transmutation of Iron into Damask Steel. You must at first 
purge it of its usual brittleness; and after having reduced it into filing's, 
make it red hot in a crucible; steep it several times in oil of olives, in 
which you shall have before thrown melted lead. Take care to cover 
the vessel in which the oil is container], every time you throw the 
steel into it, for fear the oil should catch fire. 

To whiten Bi^ass. Brass, copper, iron, or steel may be easily 
whitened, by means of the Cornwall tin, or pewter, prepared with sub- 
limate, proceeding as follows: Take Cornwall pe\>ter, about one 
pound, add to it half that quantity of sublimate. Set it on a strong fire 
and sublime. Throw away the first water; the second is good, which 
you know by its v.7hite colour. Now if you make a piece of copper, 
brass, steel or iron, it is not material which, red hot and steep it in 
that water it will become as white as silver. 

To calcine Pewter, and render it as ichife and as hard as silver. 
Melt well your pewter in a crucible, so that it may be very fine and 
clear; pour it afterwards into a very strong vinegar, then into mercu- 
rial water; repeat that operation as many times as you please, you will 
each time giv© it an additional degree of hardness and whiteness draw- 



iim- near to silver, so much that it will at last be very difficult tO distin- 
guish from silver. 

To render Iron as ivJiite and af} beautiful as Silver. Take ammoni- 
ac salt in powder, and mix it with nn equal quantity of quicklime. 
Put them all together in cold water and mix well; when done, any iron 
piece which you shall have made hot, will if you steep it in that pre- 
pared water, become as white as silver. 

To prevent Iron from resting. Warm your iron till you cannot touch 
it without burning yourself. Then rub it with new and clean white 
wax. Put it again to the fire till it has soaked in the wax. When 
done, rub it over with a piece of serge, and the iron will never rust. 

To soften Iron and harden it more than it loas hefsre. Make a lit- 
tle chink lengthways in an iron bar, in which pour melted lead. Then 
make it evaporate by a strong fire, as that of copelling; renew this 
operation four or five times, and the bar will become very soft. You 
harden it afterv/ards by steeping it, when red hot, in mere forge wa- 
ter, and it will be of so good a temper as to be fit for lancets, razors 
and knives, with which you will be able to cut other iron without its 
splitting or denting. 

It has been found by experience that an armour can never be 
good proof against fire arms, if it has not fij-st been softened with oils, 
gums, wax, and other incerative things, and afterwards hardened by 
steeping them several times over in binding waters. 

Method of giving a lustre to Silver. Dissolve any quantity of al- 
um in water so as to make a pretty strong brine, which you must scim 
carefully, add some soap to it, and when you want to use it, dip a piece 
of linen rag into it, and daub it over your plates. This process will 
add much to their lustre. 

To preserve the brightness of Arms. E ub them with hart's marrow, 
or else dissolve some alum powder, with the strongest vinegar you 
can find, and rub your arms with it. By this means they keep for ev- 
er bright. 

To coat Copper with Silver. Take a few grains of silver in powder 
as precipitated by copper in a preceding experiment, after it is wash- 
ed and before melting; about an equal weight of alum or a little more; 
six times as much table salt; also six times as much tartrite of potash; 
pulverize ail these articles and rub them v/ell together; rub the clean 
bright surface of a piece of copper with this powder and it will be sil- 
vered. 

This silvering is not very durable, though it may be easily renewed. 
Plating copper is much preferable. This is done by brazing on a thin 
bar of silver upon a thick bar of copper. Then both are rolled out 
into the proper thickness for use. 

Tin alloyed with Copper. Scour a very thin slip of iron bright, which 
while doing, dip it several times in very dilute sulphuric acid; bend 
one end of it so that it will fit the bottom of a crucible. Melt some tin 
in the crucible and dip the bent end of the shp of iron into it; the tin 
will combine with the surface of the iron, and if very thin will pene- 
trate entirely tnrough it. 

On this principle sheet tin is manufactured. 

Chinese Sheet Lead. The operation is carried on by two men; the 
one is seated on the floor, with a large flat stone before him, and with 



78 THE ARTIST AND 

a moveable flat stone stand, at his side. His fellow workman stands 
by his side ^\^th a crucible filled with melted lead; and having poured 
a certain quantity upon the stone, the other lifts the moveable stone, 
and dashing it on the fluid lead, presses it out into a flat and thu; plate, 
which he instantly removes from the stone. A second quantity of 
lead is poured in a similar manner, and a similar plate formed, the pro- 
cess being carried on with singular rapidity. The rough edges of the 
plates are then cut off, and are soldered together for use. 

This method has been applied with grer,t success to the formation 
of thin plates of zinc, for galvanic purposes. 

To cover bars of Copper, c^-c. ivith Gold, so as to he rolled out into 
sheets. Prepare ingots or pieces of copper or brass, in convenient 
lengths and sizes — clean them from impurity, making their surfaces 
level: now prepare plates of pure gold, or gold mixed with a portion 
of alloy, of the same size of the ingots of metal, and of suitable thick- 
ness. Having placed a piece of gold upon an ingot intended to be 
plated, hammer and compress them together, so that they may have 
their surfaces as nearly equal to each other as possible: now bind them 
together with wire, in order to keep them in the same position during 
the process required to attach them: now take silver filings, and mix 
wdth borax, to assist the fusion of silver; lay the mixture upon the edge 
of the plate of gold, and next to the ingot of metal. Having thus pre- 
pared the t'vvo bodies, place them on a fire in a stove or furnace, and let 
them remain until the silver and borax placed along the edges of the 
metals melt, and until the adhesion of the gold with the metal is per- 
fect; then take the ingot carefully out of the stove, and by this process 
it is plated v\ith gold, and prepared ready for rolling into sheets. 

Metallic JVatering, or for Blanc Moire. This article of Parisian 
invention, v/hich is much employed to cover cabinet ornamental work, 
dressing boxes, telescopes, &c. is prepared as follows: dilute sul- 
phuric acid, v.'ith from 7 to 9 parts of water; then dip a sponge or rag 
into it, and wash the surface of a sheet of tin; this will speedily exhibit 
the appearance of crystallization, which is the moire. This effect is 
not easily produced upon every sort of sheet tin; for if much harden- 
ed by hammering and rolling, then the moire cannot be effected until 
the sheet has been heated so a to produce an incipient fusion on the 
surface, after which the acid will act upon it, and produce the moire. 
Almost any acid will do as Vvcll as the sulphuric, and it is said the citric 
acid, dissolved in a sufficient quantity of water, answers better than any 
other. The moire can be much improved by employing the blow-pipe, 
to form small and beautiful specks on the surface of the tin, previous 
to the application of the acid. When the moire has been formed, the 
plate is to be varnished and polished, the varnish being tinted with any 
glazing colour, and thus the red, green, yellow, and pearl coloured 
moires are manufactured. 

To plate Iron. 1. Polish the surface very clean and level with a 
burnisher; and afterwards by exposing it to a bluing heat, a silver leaf 
is properly placed, and care'u ly < "Trnis ed down. This is repeated 
till a sufficient number of leaves are ap; lied to give the silver a proper 
body. 

2. By the use of solder: slips of ■bin solder are placed between the 
iron and silver, with a little flux, and secured together by binding we. 



tradesman's guide. 79 

It is then placed in a clean vessel, and continued in it till the solder 
melts; when it is taken out, and on cooling is found to adhere firmly. 

3. By tinning the iron first, and uniting the silver by the interme- 
dia of shps of rolled tin, brought into fusion in a gentle heat. 

To tin Copper and Brass. Boii six pounds cream tartar, four gal- 
lons water, and eight pounds grain tin, or tin shavings. After they 
have boiled a sufficient time, the substance to be tinned is put therein, 
and the boiling continued, when the tin is precipitated in its metallic 
form. 

To tin Iron and Copper Vessels. The iron to be tinned must be 
previously steeped in acid materials, such as sour whey, distiller's 
wash, &c. then scoured and dipped in melted tin, having been first 
rubbed over with a solution of sal ammoniac. The surface of the tin 
is prevented from calcining, by covering it with a coat of fat. Copper 
vessels must be well cleansed; and then a sufficient quantity of tin, 
with sal ammoniac, is put therein, and brought into fusion, and the 
copper vessel moved about. A little resin is sometimes added. The 
sal ammoniac prevents the copper from scaling, and causes the tin to 
be fixed wherever it touches. Lately, zinc has been proposed for 
lining vessels, instead of tin, to avoid the consequences which are un- 
j ustly apprehended. 

To Dye in Goldj Silver Medals through. Take some saltpetre, 
pour over it a sufficient quantity of oil of vitriol, to swim over. When 
the ebullitions, arising from that mixture shall be ended, distil to diy- 
ness — there remains a white salt. Dissolve in what quantity of warai 
water you think proper, or maybe in need of, which you know when you 
see the water can dissolve no more of it — put into this a drachm of 
calx or magister of gold. Then put in digestion, in it, laminas cut small 
and thin, for twenty-four hours, over a very gentle fire. At the end of 
that time, you will find them ^thoroughly dyed gold colour, inside and 
out. 

Silvering Powder. Silver dust from fifteen to twenty grains, cream 
tartar, common salt, each two drachms, alum half a drachm. 

2. Silver dust, half an ounce, common salt, sal ammoniac, of each 
two ounces, coiTosive sublimate, one drachm; make into a paste with 
water, used to silver copper, which is to be cleaned by boiling with 
argol and alum, then rub it with either of these powders, and pohsh 
^vith soft leather. 

White Metal. Ten oz. lead, six oz. bismuth, and four oz. regulus 
of antimony. 

2. Two lbs. regulus of antimony, eight oz. brass, and ten oz. tin. 

Common hard White Metal. Eight oz. copper, and half an oz. 
neutral arsenical salt, fused together, under a flux composed of calcin- 
ed borax, charcoal dust, and fine powdered glass. 

Manheim Gold. Three and a half oz. copper, one and a half oz. 
brass, and fifteen gi-s. pure tin. 

Imitation of Silver. Three-fourths oz. tin, and one lb. copper, will 
make a pale bell metal which will roll and ring veiy near to sterling 
silver. 

Yellow dipping Metal. Two parts Cheadle brass, one part cop- 
per, with a little Bristol old brass, and one-fourth of an oz. of tin to 
every pound of copper. This alloy is almost of the colour of gold 



aO X THE ARTIST AJfD 

coin. Cheaale brass is the darkest, and gives the metal a greenish 
hue. Old Bristol brass, is pale and yellow. 

Gilding .Metal. Four parts copper, one part Bristol old brass, and 
fourteen oz. of tin to every pound of copper. 

Common Jewelry. Three parts copper, one part Bristol old brass, 
and four oz. of tin, to every pound of copper. 

If this alloy is for fins polishing, the tin may be omitted, and a mix- 
ture of lead and antimony substituted. Paler polishing metal, by re- 
ducing the copper to two, oi- to one part. 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

SCULPTURE AND PRINTING. 

To ascertain when the art of sculpture was first practised, and by 
what nation^ is beyond human research; we may safely conjecture, 
however, that it was one of the original propensities of man. This 
will still appear in the ardent and irresistible impulse of youth to make 
representations of objects in wood; and the attempts of savages to 
embody their conceptions of their idols; a command from the Author 
of our being, was necessary to prevent the ancient Israelites from mak- 
ing graven images; and the inhabitants of the rest of the earth pos- 
sessed similar propensities. The descriptions in the Scriptures de- 
monstrate that the art had been brought to great perfection at the pe- 
riod of which they treat. It is necessary to make a distinction be- 
tween carving and sculpture; the former belongs exclusively to wood, 
and the latter to stone or marble. The aclinowiedged masters of this 
subhme art, v/ere the ancient Greeks. Such have been the excellence 
and correctness of their imitations of nature, and the refined elegance 
of their taste, that many of their works are mentioned, as efforts never 
to be exceeded or perhaps imitated. Statuary is a branch of sculp- 
ture, employed in the making of statues. The term is also used for 
the artificer himself. Phidias was the greatest statuary among the an- 
cients, and Michael Angelo, among the moderns. Statues are not 
only formed mth the chisel from marble, and carved in wood, but they 
are cast in plaster of Paris, or other matters of the same nature, and 
in several metals, as lead, brass, silver, and gold. 

The Process of Casting in Plaster of Paris. Mix the plaster with 
water, and stir it until it attains a proper consistence; then pour on any 
figure, for instance, a human hand or foot, previously oiled in the 
slightest manner possible, Avhich prevents the adhesion of the plaster; 
in a few minutes the plaster will be dry to the hardness of soft stone, 
taking the exact impression of every part, even the minutest pores 
of the skin. This impression is called the mould. When taken from 
the figure that produced it, and slightly oiled, plaster mixed with wa- 
ter as before, may be poured into it, where it must remain until harden- 
ed; if it be then taken from the mould, it will be an exact image of 
the original figure. When the figure is flat, having no hollows, or 
high projections, it may be moulded in one piece, but when its sur- 
face is varied, it must be moulded in many pieces fitted together, and 
held in one or more outside, or containing piece. 

This useful art supplies the painter and sculptor with exact representations from nature, 
and mviltiplies models of all kinds. It is practised in such perfection, that casts of the antique 
statues are made so precisely like the originals in proportion, outline, and surface, that no dir= 
ference is discoverable, excepting in colour, and matcriale= 



TRADESMAN- 3 GUIDE. :f.l 

'Composition of Ancient Statues. According to Pliny, the metal 
•used by the Romans, for their statues, and for the plates on which they 
cno-raved inscriptions, was composed in the following manner. They 
tirst melted a qu^tity of copper, into which they put one-third of its 
weio-ht of old copper which had been long in use — to every hundred 
lbs. weight of this mixture, they added twelve and a half lbs. of alloy 
composed of equal parts of lead and tin. 

M.etallic Casts from Engravings on Copper. A most important dis- 
covery has lately been made, v.-hich promises to be of cosiderable utili- 
ty in the fine arts; some beautiful specimens of metallic plates of a 
peculiar composition, have lately appeared — under the name of "cast 
engravings." This invention consists in taking moulds from every 
kind of engravings, with lime, mezzotinto, or aqua-tinta, and pouring 
on this mould an alloy, in a state of fusion, capable of taking the fin- 
est impression. The obvious utility of this invention, as applicable 
to engravings, which meet with a ready sale., and of which great num.- 
bers are required, will be incalculable, as it will wholly prevent the ex- 
pense of retracing, which forms so prominent a charge in all works of 
an extended sale. No sooner is one cast worn out, than another 
may be innnediately procured from the original plate, so that every 
impression will be a proof. Thus, the works of our most celebrated 
artists, may be handed dov.n, ad infinitum, for tlie improvement :&nd 
tielight of future ages, and will afford at the sam.e time, the greatest 
satisfaction to every lover of the fine arts. 

The art of Printing, deserves to be considered v.ith attention and 
respect. From the ingenuity of its contrivance, it has ever excited 
mechanical curiosity; from its intim.ate connexion with learning, it has 
justly claimed historical notice; and from its extensive influence on 
morality, politics, and religion, is novv' become a very important spec- 
ulation. Coining and taking impressions in wax, are of great anti- 
11 Jity, and the principle is precisely that of printing. The apphcation 
of this principle to the mmltiplication of books, constituted the discov- 
ery of the art of printing. The Chinese have for m.any ages, printed 
with blocks, or whole pages engraved on wood. But the application 
of single letters or moveable types forms the merit of the European 
art. The honour of giving rise to this m.ethod has been claimed by the 
cities of Harlaem, Mentz, and Strasburg; and to each of these it may 
be ascribed in some degree, as printers resident in each, made.suc- 
cessive improvements in the art. It is recorded by a reputable au- 
thor, that Laurens Focter, of Harlaem, walking in a wood near that 
city, cut som.e letters upon the rind of a beech tree, which for fancy's 
sake, being impressed upon paper he printed one or two lines for his 
grandchildren; and having thus succeeded, he invented a more glutinous 
ink, because he found that the common ink sunk and spread; and then 
formed whole pages of wood, vath letters cut upon them, and, (as noth- 
ing is complete, in its first invention, ) the backsides of the pages were 
pasted together, that they might have the appearance of manuscripts, 
written on both sides of the paper. These beechen letters, he after- 
wards exchanged for leaden ones, and these again for tin and lead, as 
a flexible, and more solid and durable substance. He died in 1440, 
and by some, his first attempt is supposed to have been made about 
1430, but by others, as early as 1423. 



82 THE ARTIST AND 

From this period, printing has made a rapid progress in most of the' 
principal towns of Europe, superseded the trade of copying, which, till 
that time, was very considerable, and was in many places considered 
as a species of magic. In 1490, it reached Constantinople, and was 
extended by the middle of the following century to Africa and Ameri- 
ca. 

During the period since its invention, what has not the art of print- 
ing effected? It has blunted the edge of persecution's sword, laid open 
to man his own heart, struck the sceptre from the hand of tyranny, and 
awakened from its slumbers, a spirit of knowledge, cultivation and lib- 
erty. It has gone forth like an angel, scattering blessings in its path, 
solacing the wounded mind, and silently pointing out the triumphs of 
morality, and the truths of revelation to the gaze of those, whom the 
want of precept or good example had debased, and whom ignorance 
had made sceptical. 

^ IThe fourth centennial anniversary of the invention of printing, was observed at Harlaem 
"In Holland, on^the 10th and 11th of July, 1823, with great rejoicing, and a splendid festival. 

Printer^ Types. Ten pounds of lead, and two pounds of antimo- 
ny. The antimony must be thrown into the CRicible, when the lead 
is in a state of fusion. The antimony gives a hardness to the lead, 
without which, the type would speedily be rendered useless, in a print- 
ing press. Different proportions of lead, copper, brass and antimony, 
frequently constitute this metal. Every artist has his own proportions, 
so that the same composition cannot be obtained from different found- 
ries; each boasts of the superiority of his own mixture. 

Small Types and Stereotype Plates. Nine pounds of lead, and 
when melted, add two pounds of antimony, and one pound of bis- 
muth. 

This alloy expands as it cools, and is, therefore, well suited for the 
formation of small printing types (particularly, when many are cast to- 
gether, to form stereotype plates,) as the whole of the mould is accu- 
rately filled with the alloy; consequently, there can be no blemish in the 
letters. 2. Eight parts of lead, two parts of antimony, and one- 
third part of tin. For the manufacture of stereotype plates, plaster of 
Paris, of the consistence of a batter pudding before baking, is poured 
over the letter-press page, and worked into the interstices of the types, 
with a brush. It is then collected from the sides, by a slip of iron or 
wood, so as to lie smooth and compact. In about two minutes, the 
whole mass, is hardened into a solid cake. This cake, which is to 
serve as the matrix of the stereotype plate, is now put upon a rack in 
an oven, where it undergoes great heat, so as to drive off the super- 
fluous moisture. When ready for use, these moulds, according to their 
size, are placed in flat cast iron pots, and are covered over with an- 
other piece of cast iron, perforated at each end, to admit the metallic 
composition intended for the preparation of stereotype plates. The 
flat cast iron pots are now fastened in a crane, which carries them 
steadily to the metallic bath, or melting pot, where they are immersed, 
and kept for a considerable time, until all the pores and crevices of 
the mould are completely and accurately filled. When this has taken 
place, the pots are elevated from the bath, by working the crane, and 
are placed over a water trough, to cool gradually. When cold, the 
whole is turned out of the pots, and the plaster being separated, by 



tradesman's guide. 83 

hammering, and washing, the plates are ready for use, having received 
the most exact and perfect impression. 

CHAPTER XIX. 
ENGRAVING, ETCHING, &c. 

Engraving is the art of cutting metals and precious stones, and re- 
presenting on them whatever device the artist pleases, and that great 
numbers of an impression from the same engraving may be taken, in 
a short time, and at a small price. 

The French divide the art into several branches, according to the 
different materials wrought upon, and the manner of execution. ' 

Among us, the first method is distinguished, as cutting in wood; 
that on metals, with aqua-fortis, is named etching; that by the knife, 
burnisher, ox scraper, mezzotinto; that on stones, carving, or stone 
cutting; and that performed with a graver on metals or precious stones, 
which we shall now attempt more immediately to illustrjate. The 
principle on which this art is grounded, are the same with those of 
painting, viz. design, which an engraver ought to make his peculiar 
study, for without that he will neither be able to imitate the- perform- 
ances of the greatest masters in painting, or design any thing beauti- 
ful of his own. In imitating the paintings of eminent masters, the en- 
graver should studiously conform himself to the taste and beauty of the 
copy, in order to preserve that elegance of character which distinguish- 
es the style of one master from another; and in doing which to any 
tolerable degree of perfection, it is necessary that an engraver should 
understand perspective, and architecture. The former enables him 
with ease to throw backwards, by the natural degradations of strong 
and faint, the figures and other objects of the picture, or design he 
would execute; the latter will capacitate him to preserve the due pro- 
portion of its order. To execute in this art, as well as every other, 
the materials which are used should be duly regarded. The best 
workmen prefer the red copper, which is the toughest. His plates 
should be well polished when he commences to trace any thing on 
them; his graver should be of the purest steel, well tempered and 
never blunt. / 

In conducting the strokes of the graver, care ought always to be 
taken that they flow freely and naturally. The graver should be con- 
ducted according to the various risings and cavities of the muscles, 
which in some measure depends upon a knowledge in anatomy, as 
well as design. In sculpture the work should never be made dark; as 
statues, &c. are commonly made of white marble, or stone, the colour 
reflecting on all sides, does not produce dark shades. In regard io 
drapery of every kind, if the diversity of stuffs can be represented, it 
generally adds to the beauty of the piece; when there is a necessity 
of crossing the strokes, it must be observed that the first should be 
finer than the second and the third than the second which makes the 
work appear more soft and mellow. Stuffs that have a lustre should 
be imitated, by striking with stronger and straighter strokes than oth- 
ers; being generally silk, producing flat and broken folds, should 
be expressed by one or two strokes, as their colours vary, with finer 
ones between them. Velvet and plush are represented in the same 
manner, by fine strokes between others,with this difference; the first 



S4 rilE A?v7I.Sx AN1> 

strokes shoiild he imiGh stronger than for stuiTs, and the finer one ^ 
proportionate. Metals, or vessels of gold and copper, or armour of 
polished steel, are to be engraved with fine strokes, between the 
strong ones, it being the opposition of light and shade, that occasions 
the lustre. With respect to archiiecture, perspective shows us, that 
the strokes v/hich form receding objects tend to the point of view; 
when the piece is to contain entire columns, they are to be represented 
by perpendicular lines; for in crossing them according to their round- 
ness, those strokes which are near their capitals, beinc opposed to 
those near their base, produce a disagreeable effect; unless supposed 
to be at a great distance, which renders the object ne^r parallel. 

For landscapes, the practisers of etching may. form the outHnes by 
it, particularly of the leaves of trees, which is more expeditious than 
engraving, and does as well. In tliis case, care should be taken in 
finishing it v/ell with the graver, that the etching be imperceptible, be- 
cause it has not the softness of engraving. In representing steep ob- 
jects, the first strokes should be frequently interrupted and broken off*, 
the second straight, cutting the others with acute angles, accompanied 
with long points. To represent rocks, the second strokes should not 
form the angles so acute as in representing other objects. Objects 
receding tov/ards the horizon should be touched very lightly, and 
charged with little shade, though the mass should appear dark, as from 
some shade supposed to proceed from the clouds intercepting the 
rays of the sun. Calms are represented by straight strokes, running 
parallel with the horizon, with finer ones between them, and are to be 
omitted in some places, to make their shining reflection which proceeds 
from the water. By the second strokes also, made more or less strong, 
and sometimes by perpendicular ones, the forms of objects, either re- 
ilected on the surface of the water, or advanced at a distance on- its 
banks, arc represented. 

The waves of the sea, are represented by strokes, bending accord- 
ing to the agitation of the water, v/ith finer ones between them, cutting 
them with very acute angles. To represent water falling with rapidity 
from rocks or precipices, must be expressed by first strokes accord- 
ing to the nature of their fall, with finer ones between them, leaving the 
lights formed by the beams of the sun, falling directly on them very 
bright, and the more so as they approach the fore part of the piece. 
When the clouds appear thick and agitated, the graver should be turn- 
ed about according to their form and agitation; and if they produce dark 
shades, which require double strokes, the second should cut the first 
in more acute angles than in figures. Flat clouds, losing themselves 
insensibly v.ith the sky, must be formed by strokes parallel with the 
horizon, waved a little, as they appear- more or less thick. A calm 
serene slxy should be expressed by parallel strokes, very straight with- 
out any winding. Though all the parts of a piece of engraving may 
be executed according to the rules of art, yet, unless there be a gen- 
eral proportion and harmony diffused throua;hout it will not appear 
beautiful. The principal objects of a piece should be wholly sketch- 
ed out before any part of them are finished. Engraving seems to be 
in one respect, the same in relation to printing, as painting is to hand 
'svriting; this art being capable of multiplying copies ad infinitum. 

No art, perhaps, can have a happier or more influential tendency to 



tradesman's guide.. 55 

the advancement of virtue, religion and industry; notiiing has a more 
tamiliar efficacy to form an universal good taste than prints, though it 
may be prostituted to the vilest, most debauched and detestable pur- 
poses. When this admirable art is tluis abused, we see no reason why 
the authors shoidd not be as liable to punishment by the laws, as oth- 
ers, who are the proiioters and perpetrators of vice and immorality. 

As this art is applicable to most otiiers, so, to arrive at any excel- 
lence in it, requires a knowledge in various other arts, as geometry, 
perspective, anatomy, drawing, paintin'T, scidpture, and above all 
things, desi^,\iiix. What is ordin.iriiy called gentus, is certainly an 
innate discernment, and a strong impulse and propensity to excel in 
any peculiar art; without which, nature seems to be unnaturally con- 
strained; and when that is the case, the performances of such per- 
sons will also appear forced, uncouth, and unnatural also, like the dis- 
position of the performer; for as some poet says, 

No art without a genius can prevail, 
And parts without the heip of art will fail; 
But both ingredients jointly must unite, 
To make the happy character complete. 

"When Marias, being driven from Rome, by Sylla, and was a pris- 
oner at Minturnse, a soldier was sent to murder him. Upon his com- 
ing into the room with his sword drawn for the purpose, Maiius said 
aloud, "durst thou, man, kill Caius Marius?" which so terrified the 
rufHan tiiat he retired without effecting his purpose. ''This story, or 
one glance of the eye upon his statue that I have seen," says an Eng- 
lish writer, "gives me a greater idea of him than all that Plutarch has 
wrote." And further remarks, "the Odyssey cannot give a greater 
idea of Ulysses, than a drawing I have of Polydore, when he is dis- 
covering himself to Penelope and Telemachus, by bending the bow. 
And I conceive as highly of St. Paul, by ojice walking through the 
the gallery of Piaphael at Hampton Court, as by reading the whole 
book of the Acts of the Apostles, though written by divine inspira- 
tion. Finally, in regard to history, nothing can be more useful than 
an attempt to excel in this art, in order to fix in remembrance memo- 
rable events. And as it is considered to be but in its infancy, it is to 
be greatly desired, that every meritorious performance, made in this 
country, will meet with public encouragement, not only for the honour 
of the nation, and rising artists, but for the benefit of traffic; so that, 
instead of importing immense quantities of foreign prints, we may not 
only supply ourselves, but become exporters of a commodity that is 
universally vendible. 

Floric Acid, ivith which etchings of any device, name or stanza, ^'C. 
on glass, common flint, cornelian, c^-c. can be performed. Put into 
the etching box a tea spooned of coarsely pnlverized flour-spar, and 
set tiie box into a pan of coals, placed on bricks upon a table; pour in 
strong sulphuric acid, sufficiently to moisten or moderately wet it; the 
acid will immediately rise up out of the cup, which may be known by 
its attracting so much vapom* from the air as to exhibit the appearance 
of common steam. As soon as it begins to appear, which will be in 
a few seconds, lay over the cup a piece of common window glass, large 
enough to cover its mouth, which had been previously waxed and 
written upon; let an assistant immediately apply snow, ice. or cold 



86 THE ARTIST AND 

water to the upper side of the glass, infoi;der to keep it so cool as iu 
prevent the wax which is on the under side from melting; take Off the 
glass in ten seconds, and apply another and so on; two or three may be 
applied before the flour-spar and sulphuric acid are renewed. The- 
writing made in wax will appear beautifully etched upon the glass, on 
scraping off the wax. The best method of preparing the glass is to 
warm, or rather heat moderately, the face of a smoothing iron or piece 
of polished marble; so that white wax or very fine beeswax will melt 
on being apphed to it. Lay the glass flint upon the melted wax, and 
on sliding it off it will be very evenly waxed; a dozen pieces may bo 
prepared in succession; the writing may be made with the end of 
a hard stick, &c. Care must be taken to lay the glass perfectly bare 
through all the strokes, or there will be interruptions in the etching. 

A Wax to lay on Iron and Steel. Take the bulk of a nut of whhe 
wax, melt it, and add the size of a musket ball of ceruse of Venice. 
When both are incorporated, form this composition into small sticks. 
With them rub your piece of iron or steel, after having previously 
warmed it sufliciently to melt the wax, which spread well over it \\ith 
a feather. When the wax is cold, trace whatever you will on it, and 
pass afterwards on the lines you have drawn, the following water. 

A jyiordant Water to engrave,on Steel. Take the strongest ver- 
juice you can find; alum in powder, and a little dried salt, pulverized: 
mix until perfectly dissolved; thenpass some of that water on the 
lines of your drawing, repeating the same till it is engraved: Or else 
take verdigris, strong vinegar, ammoniac and common salts, and cop- 
peras, equal parts. Set the compound a boiling for a quarter of an 
hour; then strain it through a rag, and run some of that water on your 
plate. In about half an hour afterwards it will be perfectly engraved. 

See Callot's varnish, which is an admirable composition to lay on • 
the plate you propose to engrave. '- 

To engrave with aqua-fortis, so that the loorh maij appear like basso 
relievo. Take equal parts of vermilion and black lead, two or three 
grains of mastic m drops, mix and grind them on marble, with linseed 
oil: then put the composition into a shell; then cut some soft quills, 
and let your steel or iron be well polished; try first whether your col- 
our runs sufficiently with your pens; and if it should not, you must 
add a little more oil to it, so as to have your pen mark freely, as if you 
intended writing with ink on paper; then rub well your plate of steel 
with wood ashes, to clean it; after which wipe it with a clean rag, 
and draw your design upon it with your pen, prepared as before. If 
you wish to draw birds or other animals, you must only draw the out- 
lines of them with your pen, then fill up the inside of those lines with a 
hair pencil; that is,. you must cover all the space contained between the 
first outlines drawn with the pen, the same colour, v/hich you must lay . 
with a brush to preserve all that part against the mordacity of the aqua- 
fortis. When that is done, let your work dry for a day or two; and when 
dried, take some fire made with charcoal into a chafing dish, and bake 
over it your coloiu- by degrees, till it becomes quite brown. Take 
care, notwithstanding, not to burn it, for fear you should scale it, when 
you come to scratch, with the point of a needle, those etchings orpla- p. 
ces which you wish to engrave with the following aqua-fortis. 



87' 

^ dquci'-Fortis for engraving Take verdigris, alum, rom. vitriol, 
and common salt, each, three ounces, pounded finely; put a little 
more than a quart of water into a new pipkin, and the articles men- 
tioned; infuse two hours, then place them over a charcoal fiire, and 
Avhen the water has in some degree evaporated, take the pipkin from 
the fire, let it cool, so as to bear your hand without scalding. Then 
take an earthen cup, and pour over the work intended to be engraven, 
the liquid; and continue to do so for nearly three quarters of an hour. 
Then pour on it clean water, to wash off every impurity. Try th© 
depth of the Unes of your engraving with a needle, and if not suffi- 
ciently prepared, the process of wetting it with the mixture, must b© 
again repeated; care should be taken, that the liquid is not too warm, 
as it will spoil the work. 

To engrave on Brass or Copper with Aqua-Fortis. Add more mas- 
tic in drops to your colour, and bake the plate until it becomes nearly 
black; if a flat Avork, raise round it a border of wax, to prevent the 
aqua-fortis from running off, which is to be a separating aqua-fortis, 
with which, cover the plate to the thickness of a crown; after it has 
been thus covered for a little while, it becomes green; then throw it 
away, and pour in its place some clear water, now examine the lines? 
if not of sufficient depth, put on some more aqua-fortis. 

To engrave prints by Aqua-Fortis. Grind some ceruse with clear 
water; size with isinglass. Lay this on the plate with a coarse brush, 
or pencil. When dry, draw on it your design. Or, if you wish to 
counterproof a copperplate print, blacken the back of the print, and 
place that part on the plate, prepared as before; go over all the strokes 
of the print, with a smooth ivory or wooden point, which stamps the 
back of the print, in all those places, on the plate; then go over the 
black strokes on the plate, with a pen and ink; afterwards take a steel 
point, very fine and well tempered, etch the plate with it, in following 
all the strokes marked on it, and pour aqua-fortis as heretofore di- 
rected. 

Directions to be observedin engraving with Jlqua-Fortis. The plate 
must be well polished and perfectly clean; warm it over a chafing 
dish, in which there is a charcoal fire. While over the fire, cover it 
with varnish*; then blacken it with the smoke of a candle; then chalk 
your design. The artists generally prefer drawing the outlines of their 
work, that the spirit and beauty of the design may be preserved. And 
for this purpose aqua-fortis is often employed to sketch hghtly the out- 
lines of the figures, and to have them more correct. It is necessary 
to touch a little occasionally with the graver, certain parts where the 
aqua-fortis hg,s not eaten in sufficiently. Inputting the aqua-;ortis on 
the plate, care should be taken,that it does not eat too much; to prevent 
which, oil and tallow mixed, must be dropped on the work from the> 
blaze of a candle. The artist should have a framed wooden board, over- 
laid with wax, on which the plate should be fixed a little slanting, that 
the aqua-fortis may pass over, and run into a pan placed there to re- 
ceive it. 

Thus covering at several times, and as much as is necessary, such 
places of the plate, as should not be kept so strong as others, render- 
ing the figures which are forward in the picture, constantly every time, 
nashed with the aqua-fortis which eats in them, till they are sufficient^ 



88 HIE ARTIST AND 

ly engraved, and according to the strength which is necessary to give 
them. 

To engi-ave on wood, prepare a board, of the size and thickness 
wanted, and pohsh it on the side to be engraved. Pear tree or box- 
wood IS generally preferred. Draw first your design, as you wish to 
have it appear after printing. Care should be taken, that all the strokes 
of the drawing should touch v/ell, and stick on the v/ood; and when the 
paper is very dry, (wnich is pasted on the board, by its right side, with 
a paste made of good dour, vvater, and a little vinegar, in case there is 
wanting a talent of drawing extemporaneously,) wet it gently, and with 
the top of your finger, rub it off by degrees, leaving only the strokes 
of the drawing on the board, as if it had been drawn with pen and ink. 
These strokes or lines show all that are to be spared or preserved; the 
rest should be cut off, and sunk down with delicacy, by means of a 
sharp and well pointed penknife, small chisel, &c. accordmg to the 
size and dehcacy of the worfe. 

To engrave on' Copper loiih the graver. The plate should be red 
copper, well polished; then draw your design on it with either the black 
lead stone, or a steel point. When that is done, you must be furnish- 
ed with a sharp and well tempered graver to cut, in order to give more 
or less strength to certain parts, (as has Jheretofore been observed,) 
according tb the subject; a tool of six inches in length is necessary,' 
oiie end of which, is called a scraper, is made in the form of a triangle, 
sharp on each edge, for the purpose of scraping* on the copper, when 
necessary; the other end is called a burnisher^ nearly the shape of a 
fowl's iieart, a little prolonged by the point, round and slender. This 
serves to pohsh the copper, to mend the faults, and soften the strokes. 
In order to form a better judgment of your work, you must occasion- 
ally, make use of a stump, m.ade with the piece of an old hat,, rolled 
up and blackened, to rub the plate, which fills the strokes with bjack, 
and which enables you to discover imperfections. A leather cushibn 
is also necessary to be provided with, to lay the plate on while engrav- 
ing. 

Etching may be performed by clipping a clean copper cent into melted white wax. • On tak- 
ing ii out, the wax will immediately liarden upon it. Mark out the form or" a iett«;r or figure 
upon It. Then immerse the cent in nitric acid, and let i( remain fifieen minutes. Uow.takc 
it out, scrape off the wax, and wash 'the whole clean, and the letter will be etched upon the 
cent. 

On this principle the etching upon razors, sword blades, &c. is performed* Artists have*. 
various methods for preparing compositions for applying to the metals before the acid is appli- 
ed; they generally make use of something for writing the letters, which will flow from the 
pen like ink. Then they surround the whole space to be acted upon, by an edging to con- 
line the acid, and pour on the acid, instead of immersing the metal in it, as is more particu- 
larly described in this chapter. This is called etching in basso-reUevo; • 

To make Blue Letters orir Sword Blades. Take a well polished 
sword blade and hold it over a charcoal lire, till it is blue, then with oil 
colour, write such letters, (or make such figures) as you wish shpuJd 
appear and remain, and let them dry; then \varm some strong vinegar, 
and pour all over the blade, wliich v/ill infallibly take off the blue col- 
our. After this process, a little common warm water will take off the 
oil colour, and the letters or figures will appear and remain of a curious 
and indelible blue; the same may be done on any pohshed steel. 

JS'lethod to detect false Gems. Let the gems be divided into four* 
classes, the diamond, sapphire, rock crystaL and glass iimtation; lopit 



TRADESMAN'S GUIDE. Sg' 

out a smooth lace upon it with a magnifying glass; apply to that fac^ 
a point or angle of a quartz crystal, and attempt to scratch it; if any 
scratch is made, attempt to scratch the quartz with the gem; if the 
quartz cannot be scratched with it, it is glass; if it can, it is quartz. 
Minerals of equal hardness, will scratch each other, therefore quartz 
will scratch quartz, &c. if it cannot be scratched with a quartz crys- 
tal, it may be considered as belonging either to the sapphire, or the dia- 
mond class. Select a large smooth grain of unground emery, and ap- 
ply it to the gem as before directed; if it can be scratched with emery, 
but with great difficulty, and not by the quartz crystal, it may be con- 
sidered as belonging to the sapphire class; but if it cannot possibly be 
scratched with the emery, after the most careful trials, and with severe 
pressure, it is a diamond. If an imitation gem be put into the hydr»- 
sulphuret of ammonia it will soon become tarnished. 

CHAPTER XX. 

GLASS. ■ . ' ' 

It is controverted among nal^iralists, to what class- of bodies glass 
should be referred; some make it a concrete juice, others a stone, and 
others again rank it, among, semi-metals; but Dr. Merret observes, 
that these are all natural productions; vv'hereas* glass is a factitious 
compound, produced by fire, and never found in the earth, but only 
the sand and stones that form it; but metals are perfectly formed by 

'nature, into certain species, and fire only produces them by its faculty 
of separating heterogeneous and uniting homogeneous bodies; whereas 
it produces glass by uniting heterogeneous matters, viz. salt and sand, 
of which it evidently consists. The chief characters or properties of 
glass are, that it fuses in a vehement fire; when fused, adheres to iron; 
doesiiot waste in the fire, is ductile, but not malleable; and while red 
hot can be cast into any shape. It is friable when cold; diaphanous, 
either hot or cold; flexible and elastic; disunited and broke by cold and 
moisture, and especially by saline liquors; is only cut by the diamond 
or emeiy; acid or other juices extract no quality from it; it does not 
wear by the longest use, nor will any liquor make it musty, change its 
colour, or rust; it softens metals and makes them fusible; receives all 
metallic colours externally and internally; will not calcine, and may 

•bte cemented like stones and metals. It is said 100 weight of sand in 
the compositions, ^yields 150 of glass. The salt is procured from the 
ashes of a water plant called kah. 

There are mai^y other plants besides kali, which produces a salt fit 
for glass. The sand or stones is the second ingredient, and what 
gives it the body; they must be such as will fuse; the whitest are the 
best; consequently, crystals are preferred to all others. Sometimes 
manufacturers use a sort of pebble resembling white marble. Flints 
make a pure crystalline metal. When stones cannot be had conve- 
niently, sand is used. The glass houses in England are furnished 
with a fine white sand, which is frequently used for sand boxes, with a 

. coarser kind for green glass. For crystal glass, 200 pounds sand at 
stone are mixed, finely pulverized, with 130 of salt; they are then cal- 
cined in a reverberatory furnace for several hours. Wh^n the pf oces.s 
is completed, it is called/nf, or hallito. This frit is set off in mcUt 

M 



90 THE ARTIST ANfi 

iag pots in the working furnace, with some manganese added, whicli 
destroys the greenish cast natural to all glass. While it is in fusion 
the workman mixes the metal well together; skimming off the sand, 
over which is a white salt, called sandiver, which, if suffered to re- 
main, would render the glass brittle and unfit to work. When the vit- 
rification is completed, and the metal sufficiently clear, it is formed 
into the articles required, by dipping a hollow iron into the melting pot, 
with which a sufiicient quantity is taken out for the intended work: while 
red hot, it is rolled on a marble to unite its parts more firmly, then 
blowing moderately swells it, repeating it until of sufficient size, then 
the artist, by whirhng it about, lengthens and cools the glass; moulds 
it in the stamp irons, and flats the bottom, by pressing it on the mar- 
ble; after which it is fashioned as occasion requires, after being bro- 
ken from the blowing iron. As the workman finishes them, another 
takes them up with an iron fork, and places them in a tower over 
the melting furnace to anneal, where, after remaining some time, they 
are put into pans, which are gradually" withdrawn to cool. There is 
scarcely a branch of manufacture, which deserves more attention than 
that of glass; and although the art has excited the astonisment of the 
world, still it is highly probable, that in order to bring it to the highest 
state of perfection, there is abundant room for much improvement. 

Pfiny relates that "glass was first discovered by accident in Syria, 
at the mouth of the river Belus, by certain merchants driven thither 
by the fortune of the sea, and obliged to continue there, and dress their 
victuals by making a fire on the ground, where there was an abund- 
ance of the herb kah: the plant burning to ashes, its salt incorporating 
with the sand and stones, became vitrified." 

Some writers assert that the discovery of glass is as ancient as the 
art of pottery, or making brick; for that a kiln of brick cannot be burnt, 
or a batch of pottery made, but some of the brick or ware will be at 
least superficially turned to glass; so that it must have been known at 
the building of Babel, and likewise by the Egyptians, arnong whom the 
Iraelites were many years employed in rnaking bricks. Of this kind 
no doubt, was that fossil glass mentioned by Ferrant, Imperal. to be 
found under ground in many places where great fires had been. 

A writer of eminence, makes a distinction between glass contained 
in its own mine or stone, and true glass that is extracted from the 
same; that the latter is more artificial than a metal is, when extracted 
from the ore; and as to the former, he urges, that as metal, by hav- 
ing its existence in the ore, so glass, by having it in the stone out of 
which it is produced, is a natural production. After what has been ad- 
vanced, the supposition arises, if glass is procured from stone alone, 
the weight of the metal must be less than the substance from which it 
is extracted, whereas it far exceeds, as 100 pounds of sand yield 150 
pounds of glass. Considering also, that the salts made use of are of 
the most fixed kind, therefore, we cannot suppose them to be carried 
ofi*by the fire; besides, as a proof, in the coarser glasses one may dis- 
cern, or even pick out pieces of salt, famishing a test by the taste. 
Flint, sand, and stone afford different species of glass, and the ashes, 
as they are variable in quahty, will proportionately alter the glass. A 
iixed alkaline salt, sharp and well purified, mixed with a pure calx of 
■flint-, yields a dass clearer tlmn amber itself. Our representation <'>■. 



tradesman's guide. 91 

the manufacture of glass, no doubt, is imperfect, though we are flat- 
tered it may not be wholly uninteresting. 

CHAPTER XXI. 

GILDING, SILVERING, &c. 

Grecian Gilding. Equal parts of sal ammoniac and corrosive sub- 
limate, are dissolved in spirit of nitre, and a solution of gold made 
with this menstruum. The silver is brushed over with it, which is turn- 
ed black, but on exposure to a red heat, it assumes the colour of gold. 
To dissolve Gold in Aqua-Regia. Take an aqua-regia, composed 
of two parts of nitrous acid, and one of marine acid, or of one part of 
sal ammoniac, and four parts of aqua-fortis; let the gold be granulated, 
put into a sufficient quantity of this menstruum, and expose to a mode- 
rate degree of heat. During the solution an effervescence takes place, 
and it acquires a beautiful yellow colour, which becomes more and 
more intense, till it has a golden or even orange colour. W hen the 
menstruum is saturated, it is very clear and transparent. 

To gild Iron or Steel with a solution of Gold. Make a solution of 
eight ounces of nitre and common salt, with five ounces crude alum, 
in a sufficient quantity of water; dissolve half an ounce of gold, thin- 
ly plated and cut; and afterwards evaporate to dryness, digest the re- 
siduum in rectified spirit of wine or ether, which will perfectly abstract 
the gold. The iron is brushed over with this solution, and becomes 
immediately gilt. 

2. Pour into a saturated solution of muriate of gold (that is, when 
there is no excess of acid) about twice as much sulphuric ether: now 
brush upon a clear polished surface of iron or steel, some of this li- 
quid. The ether will soon evaporate and leave the gold covering the 
surface. To gild silver or copper, heat gold and mercury together in 
a crucible, one part of gold to about eight of mercury, until they are 
completely alloyed; then throw the hot alloy into cold water. Hav- 
ing wet the silver or coppet with diluted nitric acid, brush on the alloy 
with a fine brush (a wire brush is best) as uniformly as possible. Then 
drive off the mercury With heat, nlacing the gilded metal over the hot 
coals: afterwards the surface must be polished with a burnisher. The 
only objection made to this method by artists is, that it is very diffi- 
cult to lay on the alloy evenly. But old artists learn to brush over 
the bare spots while it is heating, being careful to avoid inhaling the 
mercurial fumes. 

This method of gilding iron is undoubtedly very perfect; but it is 
desirable some better method should be discovered for gilding the 
other metals. 

To gild by dissolving gold in Aqua-Regia. Fine linen rags are 
soaked in a saturated solution of gold in aqua-regia, gently dried, and 
aflerwards burnt to tinder. The substance to be gilt must be well 
polished; a piece of cork is first dipped into a solution of common salt 
in water, and afterwards into the tinder, which is well rubbed on the 
surface of the metal to be gilt, and the gold appears in all its metallic 
lustre. 

-• To gild Ivery, SilJc, 4"^. ivith Hydrogen Gas. Immerse a piece 
of white silk or ivory into a solution of nitro-muriate of gold, ih the 



92 THE ARTIST AN© 

proportion of one part of the acid to three of distilled v/ater; whilst the 
substance to be gilded is still wet, immerse it in a jar of hydrogen gas: 
it will soon be covered by a complete coat of gold. The foregoing- 
experiment may be advantageously varied as follows: Paint flowers 
©r other ornaments with a very fine camel's hair pencil, dipped in the 
above mentioned solution, on pieces of silk, satin, &c. hold them over 
a Florence fla,sk, from which hydrogen gas is evolved, during the de- 
composition of the water by sulphuric acid, and iron filings. The 
painted flowers, in a few minutes, will shine in all the splendour of 
the purest gold, which will not tarnish on exposure to the air or in 
washing. 

Oil gilding on TVood. Cover and prime the wood with two or 
three coatings of boiled linseed oil, and carbons.te of lead, in order to 
fill up the pores, and conceal the irregularities of the surface, occa- 
sioned by the veins in the wood. When dry, lay on a thin coat of 
gold size, which is prepared by grinding some of the red oxyde of lead 
with the thickest drying oil procurable, and mixed previously to using 
with a little oil of turpentine, till brought to a proper consistence. If 
the gold size is good, it will dry in twelve hours, more or less. Then 
spread a leaf of gold on a cushion, formed by a few folds of flannel, se- 
cured on a piece of wood, eight inches square, by a tight covering of 
leather, and cut into strips of a proper size by a blunt pallet knife; then 
take each strip upon the point of a fine brush, and apply it to the part 
intended to be gilded, which gently press down with a ball of soft cot- 
ton; in a few minutes sweep away the loose particles with a large 
camel's hair brush. In a day or two the size will be completely dried, 
and the operation finished. 

To gild by Burnisking. This operation is chiefly performed on 
picture frames, mouldings, &c. Cover the surface to be gilt careful- 
ly with a strong size, made by boiling down pieces of white leather, or 
clippings of parchment, till they become a stifl'jelly; this coating be- 
ing dry, eight or ten more must be applied, consisting of the same size, 
mixed with fine plaster of Paris, or washed chalk. When a suflicient 
number of layers are put on, as the nature of the work requires, and 
feecome quite dry, apply a moderately thick layer, composed of size 
and armenia bole or yellow oxyde of lead. While this last is yet 
moist, put on the gold leaf in the usual manner; pressing it with the 
cotton ball; and before the size is become perfectly dry, the parts in- 
tended to be most brilliant, should be carefully burnished by an agate 
©r dogs tooth fixed in a handle. 

It is sometimes common, in order to save labour, but a bad practice, slightly to burnish the 
brilliant parts, anJ to deaden the rest, by drawing a brush over them dipped in size. This 
kind of gilding can only be applied on in-door work, as ram, or even a considerable degree of 
dampness will occasion the gold to peel off. When dirty, it may be cleansed by a soft brush, 
with hot spii-itofwine, or oil of turpentine. 

To gild Copper, Spc. hy Amalgamation. Immerse a very clean 
bright piece of copper in a diluted solution of nitrate of mercury. By 
the aflSnity of copper for the nitric acid, the mercury will be precipita- 
ted; now spread the amalgam of gold rather thinly over the coat of 
copper just given to the mercury. This coat unites with the amal- 
gam, but will remain on the copper. Now place the piece thus ope- 
yjited upon, in a clean oven or furnace, where there is no smoke. If 



tradesman's guide. 93 

the heat is a little greater than 600° the mercury ot" the amalgam will 
be volatilized, and the copper will be beautifully gilt. 

In the large way of gilding, the furnaces are so constructed, that the volatilized mercury is 
again condensed, and preserved for further use, so that there is no loss in the operation. There 
is^also a contrivance by which the volatile particles of mercury are prevented from injuring 
the gilders. 

To Gild Steel. Pour some of the etherial solution of gold into a 
wine glass, and slip therein the blade of a new penknife, lancet or ra- 
zor; withdraw the instrument and allow the ether to evaporate. The 
blade will be found to be covered with a very beautiful coat of gold. 
A clean rag, or a small piece of very dry sponge may be dipped in the 
ether, and used to moisten the blade, and used with the same result. 
In this case there is no occasion to pour the liquid into a glass, which 
would lose by evaporation; but the rag or sponge may moistened with 
it by applying either to the mouth of the phial. This coating of gold 
will remain on the steel for a great length of time, and will preserve it 
from rusting. This is the way in which swords and other cutleiy are 
ornamented. Lancets too are in this way gilded with great advantage, 
to secure them from rust. 

To heighten the colour of Yellow Gold. Six ounces saltpetre, two 
ounces copperas, one ounce white vitriol and one ounce alum. If it be 
wanted redder, a small portion of blue vitriol must be added. These 
are to be well mixed and dissolved in water as the colour is wanted. 

To heighten the colour of Green Gold. One ounce ten penny- 
weights saltpetre, one oz. four pennyv/eights sal ammoniac, one oz. 
four pennyweights Roman vitriol, and eighteen pennyweights verdi- 
gris. Mix them well together, and dissolve a portion in water, as oc- 
casion requires. The work must then be dipped in these composi- 
tions, applied to a proper heat to bum them off, and then quenched in 
water or vinegar. 

To heighten the colour of Red Gold. Four oz. yellow melted wax; 
add 1 1-2 oz. red ochre, in fine powder, 1 1-2 oz. verdigris, calcined 
till it yields no fumes, and half an oz. calcined borax. It is necessa- 
ry to calcine the verdigris, or else, by the heat applied in burning the 
wax, the vinegar becomes so concentrated as to corrode the surfaces, 
and make it appear speckled. 

To separate Gold from gilt Copper or Silver. Apply a solution of 
borax, in water, to the gilt surface with a fine brush, and sprinkle over 
it some fine powdered sulphur. Make the piece red hot, and quench 
it in water. The gold may be easily wiped off with a scratch brush, 
and recovered by testing it with lead. Gold is taken from the sur- 
face of the silver, by spreading it over a paste, made of powdered sal 
ammoniac, with aqtia-fortis, and heating it till the matter smokes, and 
is nearly dry, when the gold may be separated by rubbing it with a 
scratch brush. 

To Silver hij heat. Dissolve an ounce of pure silver in aqua-fortis, 
and precipitate it with common salt; to which add one pound of sal 
ammoniac, sandiver, and white vitriol, and one ounce of sublimate. 2. 
Dissolve an ounce of pure silver in aqua-fortis, precipitate it with 
common salt, and add after washing, six oz. common salt, three oz. 
each of sandiver and white vitriol, and one fourth of an ounce of sub- 
limate. These are to be ground into a paste upon a fine stone with r 



94 TME 4.RTIiT AND 

muller; the substance to be silvered must be rubbed aver vvith a suf- 
ficient quantity of the paste, and exposed to a proper degree of heat. 
When the silver runs, it is taken from the fire, and dipped into a weak 
spirit of salt to clean it. 

Silvering on Gilt Work bij Amalgamation. Silver will not attach 
itself to any metal by amalgamation, unless it be first gilt; the process 
is the same as gilding in colours, only no acid should be used. 

To Silver in the Cold Way. Two drachms tartar, two drachms 
common salt, one-half drachm alum and twenty grains silver, precip- 
itated from the nitrous acid by copper. Make them into a paste with 
a little water. This is to be rubbed on the surface to be silvered with 
a cork, &c. 2. Dissolve pure silver in aqna-fortis, and precipitate 
the silver vrith common salt; make this precipitate into a paste, by 
addmg a httle more salt and cream of tartar. 

To silver Copper Ingots. The surface of the copper on which the 
silver is to be fixed must be made flat by foiling, and should be left 
rough. The silver is first annealed, and afterwards pickled in weak 
spirit of salt; it is planished, and then scraped on the surface to be fit- 
ted on the copper. These prepared surfaces are anointed with a so- 
lution of borax, or strewed with fine powdered borax itself, and then 
confined in contact with each other, by binding wire. When they are 
exposed to a sufficient degree of heat, il\e flux '^causes the surfaces to 
fuse at the same time, and after they become cold, they are found fine- 
ly united. Copper may Hkewise be plated bj heating it, and burnish- 
ing leaf silver upon it; so may iron and brass. ' i 

The principal difficulties in plating copper are tq bring the surfaces of the copper and silvet 
into fi'sion at the same time, and to prevent the copper from scaling; for which purpose" fluxes' 
are used. 

To separate Silver from Plated Copper. This process is applied 
to recover the silver from the plated metal, which has been rolled 
down for buttons, toys, &c. without destroying any large proportion of 
the copper. For this purpose a menstruum is composed of three 
pounds oil vitriol, one and a half ounces nitre, and a pound of water. 
The plated metal is boiled in it, till the silver is dissolved, and then 
the silver is recovered by throwing common salt into the soliition. 

Amalgam of Gold in the large way. A quantity of quicksijver is 
put into a crucible or iron ladle which is lined with clay, and exposed 
to heat till it begins to smoke. The gold to be mixed should be pre- 
viously granulated, and heated red hot, when it should be added to the 
quicksilver, and stirred about with an iron rod, till it is perfectly iiis- 
solved. If there should be any superfluous mercury, it may be sepa- * 
rated by passing it through clean soft leather, and the remaining amal- 
gam will have the consistence of butter, and contain about three parts " 
of mercury to one of gold. 

To gild by Amalgamation. The metal to be gilt is to be previously 
cleansed on its surface, by boiling m a weak pickle, which is a very 
dilute nitrous acid. A quantity of aqua-fortis is poured into an earth- 
en vessel, and quicksilver put therein, when a sufficient quantity o^ 
mercury is dissolved, the articles to be gilt are put into the solution, 
and stirred about with a brush till they become white. This is called 
quicking; but, as during quicking by this mode, a noxious vapour con- 
tinually arises, which proves very injurious to the health of the work- 



TltADHSMAN^S SKIBE. 9l» 

men, they have adopted another method, by which they in a great 
measure, avoid that danger. They now dissolve the quicksilver in a 
bottle containing aqua-fortis, and leave it in the open air during the 
solution, so that the noxious vapours escape into the air. Then a 
little of this solution is poured into a basin, and with a brush dipped 
therein, they stroke over the surface of the metal to be gilt, which im- 
mediately becomes quickened. The amalgam is now applied by one 
of the following methods: 

1. By proportioning it to the quantity of articles to be gilt, and 
putting them into a white heat together, working them about with a 
soft brush, till the amalgam is uniformly spread. Or, 2. By ap- 
plying a portion of the amalgam upon one part, and spreading it on 
the surface, if flat, by working it about with a harder brush. The work 
thus managed is put into a pan, and exposed to a gentle degree of 
heat; when it becomes hot, it is frequently put into a heat and worked 
about with a painter's large brush, to prevent an irregular dissipation 
of the mercury, till, at last, the quicksilver is entirely dissipated, by a 
repetition of the heat, and the gold is attached to tlie surface of the 
metal. This gilt surface is well cleansed )aj a wire brush, and the 
artists heighten the colour of the gold by the applicatit)n of various 
compositions; this part of the profcess is called colouring. 

To Gild Glass and' Porcelain. Drinking and other glasses are 
sometimes gilt on their edges. This is done* either by an adhesive 
varnish, or by heat. The..varnish is prepared by dissolving in boiled 
linseed oil an equal weight, either of copal or amber. This is to be 
diluted by a proper quantity of oil of turpentine, so as to be appUed as 
' tfiin as possible to the part of the glass, intended to be gilt. When 
this is done, which will be in about twenty-four hours, the glass must be 
placed m a stove, till so w^arm as almost to burn the fingers when hand- 
led. At this temperature the varnish will become adhesive, and a 
piece of leaf gold applied in the usual way, will immediately stick. 
Sweep off the superfluous portions of the leaf, and when quite cold it 
may be burnished, taking care to interpose a piece of very thin paper, 
between the gold and burnisher. If the varnish is very good, this is 
the best ihethod of gilding glass, as the gold is thus fixed on more 
evenly. ^ 

It often happens that the varnish is but indifferent, and that by re- 
peated washing the gold wears off; on this account the practice of 
burning it, is sometimes had recourse to. For this purpose, some gold 
powder is ground with borax, and applied to clean glass, by a camel's 
^air pencil; when quite dry, the glass is put into a stove heated to 
about thetefnperature of an annealing oven: the gum burns off, and the 
"borax, by vitrifying, cements the gold with great fu-mness to the glass; 
when it may be burnished. Porcelain and other wares may be platinized, 
silvered, tinned, and bronzed, in a similar manner. 

To gild Leather. Dust the leather over with very fine powdered 
yellow resin or mastic gum. The iron tools should be arranged (if 
letters alphabetically) on a rack before a clear fire; to be well heated 
without becoming red hot. Each letter or stamp must be tried as to 
its heat, on the raw side of a piece of waste leather. Now, press the 
tool downward on the leaf, if it has acquired a proper heat; which will 
become indented and show the figure imprinted on it — the next letter 



9S THE ARTIST AxXB 

is taken and stamped in like manner; and so on with the others: the 
superfluous gold may be rubbed off by a cloth. The cloth should be 
slightly greased, to retain the gold wiped off. The cloth will soon 
become saturated with gold, and is generally sold to refiners to re- 
cover the gold. Some afford as much gold by burning as to be worth 
a guinea and a half. 

Gold Powder for Gilding. Gold powder may be prepared in three 
different ways: 1. Put into an earthen mortar some gold leaf, with a 
little honey, or thick gum water, and grind the mixture till the gold is 
reduced to extremely minute particles. When this is done, a little 
warm water will wash out the honey or gum leaving the gold behind in 
a pulverulent state. 

2. Dissolve pure gold, (or the leaf,) in nitro-muriatic acid, and then 
precipitate it by a piece of copper, or by a solution of sulphate of 
iron. The precipitate, (if by copper,) must be digested in distilled 
vinegar, and then w^ashed, (by pouring water over it repeatedly,) and 
dried. This precipitate will be in the form of a very fine powder; it 
works better, and is more easily burnished than gold leaf ground wdth 
honey as above. 

3. Or the best method is, by heating a prepared amalgam of gold, 
in an open clean crucible, and continuing the strong heat until the 
whole of the mercury is evaporated; at the same time constantly stir- 
ring the amalgam with a glass rod. When the mercury has complete- 
ly left the gold, the remaining powder is to be ground in a wedge wood 
mortar, with a little water, and afterwards dried. It is then fit for use. 
Although the last mode of operating has been here given, the operator 
cannot be too much reminded of the danger attending the subhmation 
of mercury. In the small way here described it is impossible to ope- 
rate without danger; it is therefore better to prepare it according to the 
former directions, than to risk the health by the latter. 

To Gild IVrifings, Drawings, c^-c. Letters written on vellum or 
paper are gilded in three ways; for the first, mix size with the ink, 
and the letters are written as usual; when dry a slight degree of sticki- 
ness is produced, by breathing on them; then apply the gold leaf, mak- 
ing a little pressure, that it may adhere with firmness. The second 
method is, some white lead or chalk is ground up with strong size, and 
the letters are made by this means with a brush; when dry, the gold 
leaf may be laid on, and afterv/ards burnished. The last process is 
to mix up some gold powder with size, and to form the letters by 
means of a brush. It is supposed this last method was used by the 
monks in illuminating their missals, psalters, and rubrics. 

To Gild on the Edges of' Paper. Leaves of books and letter pa- 
per should be gilded while in a horizontal position in the book binder's 
press. Apply a composition formed of four parts of Armenian bole, 
and one of candied sugar, ground to a proper consistence in water, 
and laid on by a brush with the white of an egg. When nearly dry, 
smooth the coating by a burnisher; which is generally a crooked piece 
of agate, very smooth, and fixed in a handle. Then shghtly moisten 
It by a sponge dipped in clean water, and squeezed in the hand. Take 
lip the leaf on a piece of cotton, from the leather cushion, and apply it 
to the moistened surface. When dry, burnish it by rubbing over it the 
agate repeatedly fi'om end to end, taking care not to wound the sur« 



tradesman's guide. 9? 

face by the point of the burnisher. A piece of silk or India paper is 
usually interposed between the gold and burnisher. 

To gild in Colours. The principal colours of gold for gilding are 
red, green, and yellow. These should be kept in diiferent amalgams. 
The part which is to remain of the first colour is to be stopped off with 
a composition of chalk and glue; the variety required is produced by 
gilding the unstopped parts with the proper amalgam, according to the 
usual mode of gilding. Sometimes the amalgam is applied to the sur- 
face to be gilt without any quicking, by spreading it with aqua-fortis; 
but this depends on the same principle as a previous quicking. 

To plate Looking-glasses. On tin foil fitly disposed on a flat table, 
mercury is to be rubbed with a hare's foot; it soon unites itself with 
the tin. A plate of glass is then cautiously to be slid upon the tin leaf, 
in such a manner as to sw eep off th^ redundant mercury, not incorpo- 
rated with the tin. Lead weights are tlien placed on the glass, and in 
a little time, the quicksilver tin foil, adheres so firmly to the glass, that 
the weights may be removed without danger of its falling off. About 
two ounces of mercury is sufficient for covering three square feet of 
glass. The glass should be perfectly clean: the least dirt or dust on 
the surface will prevent the adhesion of the amalgam. 

Put a drop of mercury into a wine glass, and drop into it Small 
pieces of tin foil, which will become liquified and unite with the mer- 
cury. Continue these additions until the amalgam contains about half 
as much tin as mercury. Next spread a small piece of tin foil very 
evenly on the face of a smoothing iron or a piece of polished marble; 
pour the amalgam upon it and rub it over the tin foil with the .finger for 
about two minutes. Now press upon it a piece of dry clean glass; press 
it down with such force as to press out all the uncombined mercury; 
lay a weight upon the glass and leave it half an hour, when it may be 
taken up, and it will be found to be a mirror. 

All looking glasses are made in this way, upon a large scale; the 
slab is placed in an inclined position, so that the excess of mercury 
runs, and is saved for the next, &c. 

To silver Glass Globes. One ounce clean lead, one ounce fine tin, 
one ounce bismuth, and ten ounces of quicksilver. Put the tin and 
lead into the ladle first; when melted, add the bismuth. Scim off the 
dross, remove the ladle from the fire, and before it sets, add the quick- 
silver; stir the whole carefully together, taking care not to breathe 
over it as the fumes of the mercury are very pernicious. Pour this 
through an earthen pipe', into the glass globe, which turn repeatedly 
round. 2. Two parts mercury, one part tin, one part lead, and one 
part bismuth; or four ounces of quicksilver and tin foil. The quanti- 
ty of tin foil to be added, is so much as will become barely fluid when 
mixed. Let the globe be clean and warm, and inject the quicksilver 
by means of a pipe at the aperture, turning it about till it is silvered all 
over. Let the remainder run out, and hang the globe up. 

A Gold coloured Ink. Pulverize very fine one ounce of orpine, and 
as much crystal; put this powder in five or six whites of eggs, well beat- 
en, then turned into water. Mix all well, and it will be prepared to 
w rite or paint, producing a gold colour. 

A Silver coloured Ink. Finest of pewter, one ounce, quicksilver*^ 
hvo ounces. They should be mixed until quite fluid. Then grind i'- 



§§ THE ARTIST AND 

on porphyry with some gum water, when it is fit to use. The tvritmg 
will appear as if it had been done with silver. 

To prepare the Silver Tree. Pour into a glass globe or decanter, 
four drachms nitrate of silver, dissolved in a pound or more of distilled 
water, and lay the vessel on the chimney piece; or where it may not 
be disturbed. Now pour in four drachms of mercury. The silver 
will become precipitated in the most beautiful arborescent form; re- 
sembling real vegetation. 

To prepare the Tin Tree. Into a vessel similar to that used in the 
last experiment, with the same quantity of water put in three drachms 
of muriate of tin, adding ten drops nitric acid. Shake the vessel un- 
til the salt be completely dissolved. Replace the zinc (which must 
be cleared of the effects of the former experiment,) as before, and set 
the whole aside to precipitate without disturbance. In a few hours 
the effects will be similar to the la'st, only that the tree will have more 
lustre. In these experiments it is surprising to observe the laminas 
shoot out as it w ere from nothing; but this phenomenon seems to pro- 
ceed from a galvanic action of the metals and the water. 

To prepare the Lead Tree. Put one half an ounce of the super- 
acetate of lead in powder, into a clear glass globe or decanter, filled 
to the bottom of the neck, with distilled water, and ten drops nitric 
acid, and shake the mixture well. Prepare a rod of zinc with a ham- 
mer and file, a quarter of an inch thick and one inch long. Form 
notches in each side for a thread, by which it is to be suspended; tie 
the thread so that the knot may be uppermost, when the metal hangs 
quite perpendicular. When tied, pass the two ends of the thread thro' 
a perforation in the cork and let them be again tied over a small splin- 
ter of wood, which may pass between them and the cork. When the 
string is tied, let the length between the cork and zinc be such that 
the zinc may be at equal distances from the side, bottom and top of 
the vessel when immersed in it. Now put the vessel in a place where 
it may be undisturbed; introduce the zinc, at the same time fitting in 
the cork. The zinc will assume the form of a tree or bush, whose 
leaves and branches are laminal, or plates of a metallic lustre. 

Glazing the Clay CaJce. Lay a sun dried plastic or refractory clay 
cake obliquely across a crucible of such a length as to go entirely into 
the crucible, but not let it reach the bottom. Heat the crucible until 
the clay cake is at a white heat, then throw a little common salt, ("mu- 
riate of soda) into the crucible and continue to raise the heat. On 
taking out the clay cake, its surface will be found covered with a glaz- 
ing, made of the soda and alumine fused together. Dip a dried cake 
into mortar, sufficiently diluted with water to become a free liquid, 
which is made of marly clay. Then heat it as before, and it will be- 
come glazed. Upon this principle potter bakers glaze their wares. 

To prepare Copper Foils. When coloured foils are wanted, cop- 
per may therefore be best used, and may be prepared for the purpose 
as follows. Take copper plates, beaten to a proper thickness, and 
pass them between a pair of fine steel rollers, very close set, and draw 
them as thin as is possible to retain a proper tenacity. Polish them 
with very fine whiting or rotten stone, till they shine, and have as 
much brightness as can be given them, and they will then be fit to 
Keeeive the colour. 
a 2i 



tradesman's guide. , Oy 

To whiten Foils. When the yellow, or rather orange colour of the 
ground would be injurious to the effect, as in the case of purple or 
crimson red, the foils should be whitened, which may be done in tlie 
following manner. 

Take a small quantity of silver tind dissolve in aqua-fortis; then 
put bits of copper into the solution, and precipitate the silver; which 
being done, the fluid must be poured off, and fresh water added to it, 
to wash away all the remainder of the first fluid; after which the sil- 
ver must be dried, an equal weight of cream of tartar and common salt 
must then be ground with it, till the whole is reduced to a fine pow- 
der; and with this mixture the foils, being first slightly moistened, 
must be rubbed by the finger or a bit of linen rag, till they be of the 
degree of whiteness desired; after which, if it appear to be wanting, 
the polish must be refreshed. Tin foils are only used in the case of 
colourless stones, when quicksilver is employed; and they may be 
drawn out by the same rollers, but need not be further polished, so 
that the effect is produced by other means in this case. 

Foils for Crystals, Pebbles, or Paste, to give the lustre of Diamonds. 
The manner of preparing foils to give colourless stones the greatest 
degree of play atid lustre, is by raising so high a pohsh or smoothness 
on the surface, as to give them the effect of a mirror, which can only 
be done, in a perfect manner, by the use of quicksilver, applied in the 
same general way as in the case of looking-glasses. The method is 
as follows: Take leaves of tin, prepared in the same manner as for 
silvering looking-glasses, and cut them into small pieces of such size 
as to cover the surface of the sockets of the stones that are to be set. 
Lay three of these, then, one upon another, and having moist- 
ened the inside of the socket with this gum water, and suffered it 
to become again so dry, that only a slight stickiness remains, put the 
three pieces of leaves, lying on each other, into it, and adapt them to 
the surface in as even a manner as possible. When this is done, heat 
the socket, and fill it with warm quicksilver, which must be suffered 
to continue in it three or four minutes, and then gently poured out. 
Then thrust the stone into the socket, which must be closed Avith 
it, care having been taken to give such room for it, that it may enter 
without stripping off the tin and quicksilver from any part of the sur- 
face. The work should be well closed round the stone to prevent 
the tin and quicksilver contained in the socket from being shaken out 
by any violence. 

The lustre of stones, set in this way, will continue longer, than when they are set in the 
common way, as the cavity round them being filled, there will be no passage found for mois- 
ture, which is so injurious to the wear of stones treated in any other way. This kind of foU 
gives some lustre. 

To colour Foils. For colouring foils two methods have been in- 
vented. The first^by tinging the surface of the copper with the colour 
required, by means of smoke, the other by staining or painting it with 
some pigment, or other colouring substance. The colours used for 
painting foils may be tempered with either oil, water rendered duly 
viscid by gum Arabic, size, or vanish. If deep colours are wanted, 
oil is most proper, as some pigments become wholly transparent in it, 
as lake or Prussian blue; the yellow and green may be laid on in var- 
nish, as these colours may be had in perfection, from a tinge wholly 



IO(D THE ARTIST Ayn 

dissolved ia spirit of vrine, in the same manner as in the case of 
lacquers; and the most beautiful green is to be produced l?y distilled 
verdigris, which is apt to lose its colour and turn black with oil. In 
common cases, any of the colours may be laid on v.ith the least trou- 
ble, in the same manner as the glazing colours used in miniature paint- 
ing. 

'Ruhy Colours. For red, where the ruby is to be imitated, a little 
lake is used with isinglass size; carmine, or shell-lac varnish, should 
be used if the glass or paste is of a full crimson, verging towards the 
purple; but if the glass inchne to the scarlet or orange, very bright lake, 
that is, not purple, may be used alone in oil. 

Garnet Red. Dragon's blood dissolved in seed -lac varnish, m,ay 
be used; for the vinegar garnet, the orange lake tempered with shell- 
lac varnish will be found excellent. 

Amethyst. Lake, with a little Prussian blue, used \\ith oil, and 
thinly spread on the foil. 

Blue. When a deep colour or the effect of the sapphire is wanted, 
Prussian blue, that is not too deep, used in oil, and spread more or 
less thmly on the foil, according to the lightness or deepness of the 
colour required. 

Eagle Marine. Common verdigris, with a little Prussian blue, 
tempered in shell-lac varnish. 

Yellow. Colour the foil with a yellow lacquer; if a full yellow is 
desired, lay it on as for other purposes. For the slighter colour of 
topazes, the burnish and foil itself will be sufficiently strong without 
any addition. 

Green. If a deep hue is required, the crystals of verdigris temper- 
ed in shell-lac should be used. But if the emerald is to be imitated, 
a little yellow lacquer should be added, to produce a truer green, less 
verging to the blue. 

Other Colours. Stones of more diluted colour, such as the ame- 
thyst, topaz, vinegar garnet, &c. may be very cheaply imitated by 
transparent white glass or paste, even without foils. This is done by 
tempering the colours above enumerated with turpentine and mastic, 
and painting the socket in which the counterfeit stone is to be set with 
the mixture, the socket and stone being previously heated. The stone 
should be im.mediately set, and the socket closed upon it before the 
mixture cools and grows hard. The orange lake vras invented for 
this purpose. The colour it produces is that of the \'inegar garnet, 
and has been used with great success by a manufacturer. The colour 
before directed to be used in oil should be extremely well ground in 
oil of turpentine, and tempered v/ith old nut or poppy oil; or, if time 
can be given to iky, with strong fat oil diluted with spirits of turpen- 
tine, which gives a fine polish of itself. The colours used in varnish, 
should also be well ground and mixed — when dragon's blood in the 
seed-lac varnish and the lacquer, the foils should be warmed before 
they are laid out. All the mixtures should be laid on the foil with a 
broad soft brush, passed from one end to the other; no part crossed or 
gone over twice, or at least, until the first coat is dry. When the col- 
ours are not strong enough another coat may be given. 

Lacquer for Brass. Six ounces of seed-lac, two ounces of amber or 
copal, ground on porphyry, forty grains dragon's blood, thirty grains 



tradesman's guibk. 101 

extract of red sandal wood, obtained by water, thirty-six grains orient- 
tal sattron, four ounces pounded glass, and forty ounces very pure al- 
cohol. 

To apply this varnish to articles or ornaments of brass, expose them 
to a gentle heat, and dip them into varnish. Two or three coatings 
may be applied in this manner, if necessary. The varnish is durable, 
and has a beautiful colour. Articles varnished in this manner, may be 
cleaned with water, and a bit of dry rag. 

Lacquer for Philosophical Instruments. This lacquer is destined to 
change, or to modify the colour of those bodies to which it is applied. 
Three-fourths of an ounce of gum guttae, two ounces of gum sandarac, 
two ounces of gum elemi, one ounce of dragon's blood, opt. one ounce 
of seed lac, three-fourths of an ounce terra merita, two grains orient- 
al saffron, three ounces of pounded glass, and twenty ounces of pure 
alcohol. The tincture of saffron and terra merita, is first obtained by 
infusing them in alcohol for twenty-four hours, or exposing them to the 
heat of the sun in summer. The tincture must be strained through a 
piece of clean linen cloth, and ought to be strongly squeezed. This 
tincture is poured oyer the articles which do not compose the tincture, 
all pounded and mixed with the glass. The varnish is then made ac- 
cording to the directions before given. It may be applied with great 
advantage to philosophical instruments: the use of it might be extend- 
ed also, to various, or moulded articles with which furniture is orna- 
mented. If the dragon's blood be of the best quality, it may give too 
high a colour; in this case the dose may be lessened at pleasure, as 
well as that of the other colouring matters. 

It is with similar varnish that the artists of Geneva, give a golden orange colour, produced 
by certain coiiipositions, the preparation of which has no relation to that of varnish, and which 
has been successfully imitated by saline mbctures, in which orpiment is a principal ingredient. 
The nails are heated before they are inunersed in the varnish, and they are then spread out 
on sheets of dry paper. 

Gold Coloured Lacquer for Brass Watch Cases,' Watch Keys, ^c. 
Six ounces of seed-lac, two ounces of amber, two ounces of gum gut- 
taj, twenty-four grains extract of red sandal wood in water, sixty grains 
of dragon's blood, thirty-six grains of oriental saffron, four ounces of 
pounded glass and thirty-six ounces of pure alcohol, grind the three 
first articles and the dragon's blood on a piece of porphyry; then mix 
them with the pounded glass, and add the alcohol, after forming with it 
an infusion of the saffron, and the extract of the sandal wood. The 
varnish must be completed as before. The metal articles destined to 
be covered by this varnish, are heated, and those which will admit of 
it are immersed in packets. The tint of the varnish may be varied, by 
modifying the doses of the colouring substances. 

Lacquer of a less drying quality. Four ounces of seed-lac, four oun- 
ces of sandarac or mastic, one-half an ounce of dragon's blood, thirty- 
six grains of terra merita, thirty-six grains of gum guttse, three ounces 
of pounded glass, two ounces of clear turpentine, thirty-two ounces of 
essence of turpentine. 

Extract by infusion the tincture of the colouring substances, and 
then add the resinous bodies according to the directions for compound 
mastic varnish. Lacquer or varnishes of this kind are called changing, 
because, when applied to metals, such as copper, brass, or hammered 



102 THE ARTIST AND 

tin, or to wooden boxes and other furniture, they communicate to them 
a more agreeable colour. Besides, by their contact with the common 
metals, they acquire a lustre which approaches that of the precious 
metals, and to which, in consequence of peculiar intrinsic qualities or 
certain laws of convention, a much greater value is attached. It is by 
meems of these changing varnishes, that artists are able to communi- 
cate to their leaves of silver and copper, those shining colours obser- 
ved in foils. This product of mdustiy becomes a source of prosperity 
to the manufacturers of buttons and works formed with foil, which in 
the hands of the jeweller, contributes v/ith so much success to pro- 
duce that reflection of the rays of the light, which doubles the lustre 
and sparkling quality of precious stones. 

It is to varnish of this kind that we are indebted for the manufac- 
ture of gilt leather, which, taking refuge in England, has given place 
to that of papier mache, which is employed for the decoration of pal- 
aces, theatres, &c. 

In the last place it is by the effect of a foreign tint obtained from 
the colouring part of saffron, that the scales of silver disseminated in 
confection de hyacynth, reflect a beautiful gold colour. The colours 
transmitted by different colouring substances, require tones suited ta 
the objects for which tliey are destined. The artist has it in his own 
power to vary them at pleasure. The addition of arnotto to the mixture 
of dragon's blood, saffron, &c. or some changes in the doses of the 
mode intended to be made in colours. It is therefore impossible to give 
limited formulae. 

To make Lacquer of various Tints. Four ounces gum guttae in 
thirty-two ounces of essence of turpentine, one ounce arnotto, and 
four ounces dragon's blood; also in separate doses of essence. 

These infusions may be easily made in the sun. After fifteen days 
exposure, pour a certain quantity of these liquors into a flask, and by 
vaiying the doses, different shades of colours will be obtamed. These 
infusions may also be employed for changing alcoholic varnishes; but 
in this case, the use of saffron, as well as that of red sandal wood,which 
does not succeed with essence, will soon give the tone necessary for 
imitating, with other tinctures, the colour of gold. 

To brown Gun Barrels After the barrel is finished, rub it over 
with aqua-fortis, or spuit of salt diluted with water, then lay it by a 
for a week, till a complete coat of rust is formed. A little oil is then to 
be applied, and after rubbing the surface dry, polish it with a hard 
brush and a httle beeswax. 

CHAPTER XXIL 
VARNISHES. 

To make white Copal Varnish. 1. White oxyde of lead, cerused, 
Spanish white, white clay. Such of these substances as are preferred 
ought to be carefully dried. Ceruse and clays obstinately retain a great 
deal of humidity, which would oppose their adhesion to drying oil or var- 
nish. The cement then crumbles under the fingers, and does not as- 
sume a body. 

2. On sixteen ounces melted copal, pour four, six, or eight ounces 
of linseed oil, boiled and quite free from grease; when well mixed by 



tradesman's guibe. lOa 

repeated stirrings, and after they are pretty cool, pour on sixteen ounces 
of the essence of Venice turpentine. Pass the varnish through a cloth. 

Amber Varnish, is made in the same way. 

Black. Lampblack made of burnt vine twigs, and black of peach 
stones. The lampblack must be carefully washed, and afterwards 
dried. Washing cames off a great many of its impurities. 

Yelloio. Yellow oxyde of lead of Naples and Montpelier, both re- 
duced to impalpable powder. Tnese yellows are hurt by the contact 
of iron and steel; in mixing them up, therefore, a horn spatula, with a 
glass mortar and pestle must be employed. Gum guttae, yellow ochre, 
or Dutch pink, according to the nature and tone of the colour to be 
imitated. 

Blue. Indigo, Prussian blue, blue verditure, and ultra-marine. All 
these substances must be very much divided. 

Gree7i. Verdigris, crystallized verdigris, compound green (a mix- 
ture of blue and yellow.) The first two require a mixture of white in 
proper proportions, from a fourth to two-thirds, according to the tint 
intended to be given. The white used for this purpose is the ceruse, 
or the white oxyde of lead, or Spanish white, which is less solid. 

Red. Red sulphuretted oxyde of mercury, (cinnabar vermilion,) 
red oxyde of lead, (minium,) different red ochres, or Prussian reds, &c^ 

Purple. Cochineal, carmine, and carminated lakes, with ceruse, 
and boiled oil. 

Brick. Dragon's blood. 

Chamois Colour. Dragon's blood, with a paste composed of flow- 
ers of zinc, or, what is still better, a litfe red vermiHon. 

Violet. Red sulphuretted oxyde of mercury, mixed with lampblack, 
washed very dry, or with the black of burnt vine twigs; and to render 
it more mellow, a proper mixture of red, blue and white. 

Pearl Grey. White and black, white and blue; for example, ceruse - 
and lampblack; ceruse and indigo. 

Flaxen Grey. Ceruse, which forms the ground of the paste, mixed 
with a small quantity of Cologne earth, as much English red, or carmin- 
ated lake, which is not so durable, and a particle of Prussiate of iron, 
(Prussian blue.) 

For Violins, ^-c. To a gallon of rectified spirit of vnne, add six 
ounces of gum sandarac, three ounces of gum mastic, and half a pint 
turpentine varnish. Put the whole into a tin can, which keep in a 
warm place, frequently shaking it, for twelve days, until it is dissolv- 
ed. Then strain and keep it for use. 

To make a colourless Copal Varnish. In selecting such pieces as 
are good, as all copal is not fit for this purpose, each piece must be 
taken separately; — let fall on it, a drop of pure essential oil of rosema- 
ry, not altered by keeping. The pieces which soften at the part that 
imbibes the oil are good: reduce them to powder, which sift through a 
very fine hair sieve, and put it into a glass, on the bottom of which it 
must not lie more than a finger's breadth thick. Pour upon it essence 
of rosemary to a similar height; stir the whole for a few minutes, when 
the copal will dissolve into a viscous fluid; let it stand for two hours, 
then pour on to it gently, two or three drops of very pure alcohol, which 
<listribute over the oily mass by inclining the bottle in different direc- 
tions with a very gentle motion: repeat this operation by little and lit- 



104 THE ARTIST AND 

tie till the incorporation is effected, and the vaniish reduced to a pro- 
per degree of fluidity. It must then be left to stand a few days, and 
when very clear, be decanted ofi". This varnish thus made without 
heat, maybe applied with equal success, to pasteboard, wood, and 
metals, and takes a better polish than any other. It may be used on 
paintings, the beauty of which it greatly heightens. 

Gold coloured Copal Varnish. One ounce copal in powder, two 
ounces essential oil of lavender, and six ounces essence of turpen- 
tine. Put the oil of lavender into a matrass of proper size, placed 
on a sand bath, heated by a lamp, or over a moderate coal fire; add to 
the oil while very v/arm, and at several times, the copal powder, stir 
the mixture with a stick of white wood, rounded at the end; when the 
copal has entirely disappeared, add at three different times, the es- 
sence almost in a state of ebullition, and keep continually stirring the 
mixture. When the solution is completed, the result will be a varnish 
of gold colour, exceedingly durable and brilliant, but less drying than 
the preceding. 

2. To obtain this varnish colourless, it will be proper to rectify the 
essence of the shops, which is often highly coloured, and to give it 
the necessary density by exposure to the sun in bottles closed with 
cork stoppers, leaving an interval of some inches between the stopper 
and the surface of the liquid; a few months are thus sufficient to com- 
municate to it the required qualities; besides, the essence of the shops 
is rarely possessed of thfit state of consistence, without having at the 
same time a strong amber colour. 

The varnish resulting from the solution of copal in oil of turpentine 
brought to such a state as to produce a maximum of solution, is ex- 
ceeding durable and brilliant. It resists the shock of hard bodies 
much better than the enamel of toys, which often becomes scratched 
and whitened by the impression of repeated friction; it is applied with 
greater success to philosophical instruments; and the paintings with 
which vessels and other utensils of metal are. decorated. 

3. Four ounces copal, and one ounce clear turpentine. Put the co- 
pal, coarsely pulverized, into a varnish pot, and give it the form of a 
pyramid, which must be covered with tui^entine. Shut the vessel 
closely, and placing it over a gentle fire, increase the heat gradually, 
that it may not attack the copal; as soon as the matter is well liquified, 
pour it upon a plate of copper, and when it has resumed its consist- 
ence reduce it to powder. Put half an ounce of this powder into a 
matrass with four ounces of the essence of turpentine, and stir the 
mixture till the solid matter is entirely dissolved. 

Camphorated Copal Varnish, is designed for articles which require 
durability, pliableness, and transparency. Two ounces pulverized 
copal, six ounces essential oil of lavender, one-eighth of an ounce 
camphor, and essence of turpentine, a sufficient quantity, according 
to the consistence required to be given to the varnish. Put in-* 
to a phial of thin glass, or into a small matrass, the oil of lavender 
and the camphor, and place the mixture on a moderately open fire, to 
bring them to a slight state of ebullition; then add the copal powder 
in small quantities, which must be renewed as they disappear in the 
liquid. Favour the solution by continually stirring it with a stick of 
white wood; and v.hen the copal is incorporated^ with the oil, add the 



tradesman's guide. 105 

turpentine boiling; but care must be taken to pour in, at first, orily a 
small portion. This varnish is little coloured, and by rest it acquires 
a transparency, which, united to the solidity observed in almost every 
kind of copal varnish, renders it fit to be applied with great success 
in many cases, and particularly in the ingenious invention substit ting 
varnished metallic gauze, used fi^r the cabin windows of ships, a- pre- 
sentino- more resistance to the concussion of air, during the firing of 
guns, in the room of Muscovy tale, a kind of mica, in large laminae. 

Fat Amber or Copal Varnish. Four ounces of amber or copal of 
one fusion, fourteen ounces essence of turpentine, and ten ounces of 
drying linseed oil. Put the whole into a pretty large matrass, and 
expose to the heat of balneum marise, or move it over the surface of an 
uncovered chafing dish, but without flame, and at the distance from 
it of two or three inches. When the solution is completed, add still 
a little copal or amber to saturate the liquid: then pour the whole on a 
filter prepared with cotton; and leave it to clarify by rest. If the var- 
nish is too thick, add a little warm essence to prevent the separation 
of any of the amber. 

This varnish is coloured, but far less so than those compo.^edby the 
usual methods. When spread over white vv^ood, without any prepare- 
tion, it forms a solid glazing, and communicates a slight tint to the wooc\ 

If it be required to charge this varnish with more copal, or prepar- 
ed amber, the liquid must be composed of two parts of essence for 
one of oil. 

Compound Mastic Varnish. Thirty-two ounces of pure alcohol, 
six ounces of purified mastic, three ounces of gum sandarac, three 
ounces of very clear Yenice turpentine, and four ounces of glas?j 
coarsely pounded. * 

Reduce the mastic ar>d sandarac to fine powder; mix with white 
glass, from which the finest parts have been separated by a hair sieve; 
put all the ingredients, with alcohol, into a short necked matrass, 
adapted to a stick of white wood rounded at the end, the length pro- 
portioned to the height of the matrass, that it may be put in motion. 
Expose the matrass in a v^essel filled with water, made at first a little 
warm, and which must afterwards be maintained in a state of ebulli- 
tion for one or two hours. The matrass may be made fast to a ring 
of straw. 

When the solution is sufiiciently extended, add the turpen- 
tine, which must be kept separately in a pliial, or pot, and which 
must be melted, by immersing it in a balneum marise for a moment; 
the matrass must be still left in the water fbi: half an hour, when it 
may be taken off, and the varnish stirred till somewhat cool. INfext 
day draw off" and filter through cotton. By these means it will be- 
come exceedingly limpid. The addition of glass may appear ex- 
traordinary; but it divides the parts of the mixture, v/hich has been 
made with the dry ingredients, and the same quality is retained when 
placed over the fire. It obviates with success two inconveniences 
very troublesome to those who compose varnishes. First, by dividing 
the matters, it facihtates the action of the alcohol; and in the second, 
its weight, which surpasses that of resins, prevents these resins from 
adhering to the bottom of the matrass, and also the coloration acquir- 
4 ed by the varnish, where a §and bath is employed, as is commonly the 



106 THE ARTIST A>D 

casB. The application of this varnish is suited to articles belonging 
to the toilette, such as dressing boxes, cut paper work, &c. The fol- 
lowing possesses the same brilliancy and lustre, but have more soUdi- 
tv, and are very drying. 

Camphorated J\iastic Varnish for Paintings. Twelve ounces mas- 
tic, cleaned and washed, one and a half ounces pure turpentme, 
and a half ounce camphor, five ounces wliite glass, pounded, and 
thirty-six ounces ethereous essence of tm-pentine. Make it according 
to the method indicated for that of the first genus. The camphor is 
employed in pieces; the tui-pentine added, when the solution of resin 
is completed. If the varnish is to be applied to old paintings, or those 
which have been already varnished, the turpentine may be suppressed, 
as it is recommended here, only in cases of a first appUcation to paint- 
ings, and just freed from white of egg varnish. The ethereous es- 
sence recommended, is that distilled slowly, without any intennedi- 
ate substance, accordmg to the second process already given for its 
rectification. The question by able masters has never yet been de- 
termined respecting the kind of varnish proper to be employed for 
paintings. Some artists have paid particular attention to this object, 
and make a mystery of the means they employ. The real end may 
be obtained by giving the varnish, destined for painting, pliabiUty and 
softness, without being too solicitous in regard to what may add to its 
consisfence or durabihty. The latter quality is particularly requisite 
in those which are to be applied to articles much exposed to friction, as 
boxes, furniture, &c. 

To male Paiyiler^s Cream. Painters who have long intervals be- 
tween their periods of labour, are accustomed to cover the parts they 
have painted with a preparation which presenes the freshness of the col- 
ours, and which they can remove when they resume their work. The 
preparation is as follows: 

Three ounces very clean nut oil, half an ounce mastic in tears, 
pulverized, and one-third of an ounce sal saturni, in powder. Dis- 
solve the mastic oil over a gentle fire, and pour the mixture into a 
marble mortar, over the pounded salt of lead; stir it with a wooden 
pestle, and add water in small quantities, ^till the matter assumes the 
appearance and consistence of cream, and refuses to admit more water. 

Sandarac Varnish. Eight ounces gum sandarac, two ounces 
pounded mastic, four ounces clear turpentine, four ounces pounded 
glass, and thirty-two ounces alcohol, mix and dissolve as before. 

Compound Sandarac Varnish. Three ounces pounded copal, of 
an amber colour; once liquified, six ounces gum sandarac, three oun- 
ce?r mastic, cleaned, two and a half ounces clear turpentine, four oun- 
ces pounded glass, and thirty-two ounces pure alcohol. MLx these 
ingredients, pursuing the same method as above. 

This varnish is destined for articles subject to friction, such as furni- 
ture, chairs, fan sticks, mouldings, &e. and even metals, to which it 
may be applied vvith success. The sandarac gives it great durability. 

Camphorated Sandarac Varnish for Cut Paper Work, Dressing 
Boxes, <^c. 1. Six ounces sandarac, four ounces gum elemi, one 
ounce gum anima, half an' ounce camphor, four ounces pound- 
ed glass and thirty-two ounces pure alcohols* Make the varnish ac- 
cording to directions already given; The soft resins must be goundr ^ 



TRADES3IAN's guidk. 10? 

ed with the dry bodies; the camphor to be added in small pieces* 
2. Six ounces gallipot or white incense, two ounces gum anima, 
two ounces pounded glass, and thirty-two ounces alcohol. Make the 
varnish with the precautions indicated for the compound mastic var- 
nish. The two last varnishes are to be used for ceilings and wains- 
coats, coloured or otherwise: they may be employed as a covering to 
parts painted with strong colours. 

Spirituous Sandarac Varnish for J'Vainscotting', Small Articles of 
Furniture, Balustrades, and Inside Railing. Six ounces of gum san- 
darac, two ounces of shell-lac, four ounces of colophonium or resin, 
four ounces white pounded glass, four ounces of clear turpentine and 
thirty-two ounces of pure alcohol. Dissolve the varnish as before di- 
rected for compound mastic varnish. This varnish is sufficiently du- 
rable to be applied to articles destined to daily and continual use. 
Those composed with copal, in these cases ought to be preferred. 

2. There is another composition, which without forming part of the 
compound varnishes is employed with success for giving a polish and 
lustre to furniture made of wood: wax forms the basis of it. Many 
cabinet makers are contented to wax common furniture. This cover- 
ing by means of repeated friction, soon acquires a polish and transpa- 
rency which resem.bles those of varnish. Waxing seems to possess 
qualities pecuhar to itself: but like varnish is attended with inconvenien- 
ces as well as advantages. Varnish supplies better the part of glazing; it 
gives a lustre to the wood which it covers, and heightens the colours of 
that destined in particular, for delicate articles. These real and valua- 
ble advantages are counterbalanced by its want of cotisistence; it yields 
too easily on the shrinking or swelling of the wood, and rises m scales 
or slits, on being exposed to the shghtest shock. These accidents 
can be repaired only -by a new strata of varnish. Waxing stands 
shocks, but has not the property of giving lustre to the bodies on which 
it is applied, in the same .^egree as varnish, and of heightening their 
tints. The lustre it communicates is dull, but the inconvenience is 
compensated, by ffie facility which any accident that may have alter- 
ed its polish can be repaired, by rubbing it with a piece of fine corlt. 
The application of wax uri^er some circumstances, therefore ought to 
be preferred to that of varnish. This seems to be the case in particular 
with tables, exposed to daily use, and all articles subject to constant 
employment. The stratum of wax should be m^ide as thin as possible, 
that the veins of the wood may be more apparent; therefore the fol- 
lowing process may be acceptable to the reader. Melt over a mode- 
rate fire, in a very clean vessel, two ounces of white or yellow wax; 
when hquified, add four ounces good essence of turpentine; stijs-the 
whole, until entirely cool, and a kind of pomade is produced, which must 
be rubbed over furniture according to the usual method. The essence 
' of turpentine is soon dissipated, but the wax by which its mixture is 
reduced to a state of very great division, may be extended v/ith more 
ease, and in a more uniform manner. The essence soon penetrates 
the pores of the wood, calls forth the colour of it, causes the wax to 
adhere better, and the lustre which then results is equal to that of var- 
nish. 

Coloured Varnish for Violin, and other stringed Instruments^ als9 
for Plum Tree, Mahogany and Rose WQod, Four ounces of gum 



108 ^ THE ARTIST AN"D 

sandarac, two oimces of seed-lac, two ounces of mastic, one oimce of 
Benjamin in tears, four ounces of pounded glass, tv* o ounces of Venice 
turpentine, and thirty-two ounces of pure alcohol. The gum sanda- 
rac and lac render this varnish durable; it may be coloured with a little 
dragon's blood or saffron. 

Fat Varnish of a Gold Colour. Eight ounces of amber, two oun- 
ces of gum lac, eight ounces of drying linseed oil, and sixteen ounces 
essence of turpentine. Dissolve separately the gum lac, and then add 
the amber, prepared and pulverized with the linseed oil and essence veiy 
warm. "When the mixture has lost part of its heat, mix in relative 
proportions, tinctures of arnotto, terra merita, gum guttie and dragon's 
blood. This varnish w^hen applied to white metals, gives them a gold 
colour. 

Fat Turpentine, or Gold Varnish, being a mordant to gold and dark 
colours. Sixteen ounces boiled linseed oil, eight ounces Venice tur- 
pentine, and five ounces Naples yellow. Heat the oil with the tur- 
pentine, and mix the Naples yellow pulverized. Naples yellow is an 
oxyde of lead; it is substituted here for resins on account of its dry- 
ing qualities, and in particular, of its colour, which resembles that of 
gold; great use is made of the varnish in applying gold leaf. The 
yellow may be omitted when this species of varnish is to be solid and 
\ised on coloured coverings; in this case an ounce of litharge to each 
pound of compositioH may be substituted, without this mixture doing 
an injury to the colour of which it is to constitute the ground. 

Turner'' s Varnish for Boxwood. Five ounces seed-lac, two oun- 
ces gum sandarac, one ounce and a half gum elemi, two ounces VenicQ 
turpentine, five oimces pounded glass, and twenty-four ounces pure 
alcohol. The artists of St. Claude do not all employ this formula, 
which required to be corrected on account of its too great dryness, 
which is here lessened by the turpentine and elemi. This composition 
is secured from craqking, which disfigures ithese boxes after having 
beenused for some montlis. i^' ^ 

2. Other turners use gum lac united to a little eremi and,tui*pentine 
digested some months in pi^e alcohol exposed to the sun.?- In pursuing 
this method, substitute for the sandarac, thUsame quantity of gum lac 
reduced to powder, and not to add the turpentine to the alcohol (which 
ought to be very pure) till towards the end of the fusion. Solar infu- 
sion requires care and attention; vessels of sufficient size to allow the 
. spirituous vapours to circulate freely, ought to be em.ployed, because 
it is necessaiy that the vessel should be closely shut. Without this 
precaution the spirits would become weakened, and abandon the resin 
which they laid hold bf during the first days of exposure. This per- 
fect obituration will not admit of the vessels being too full. In gen- 
eral, the varnishes applied to articles which maybe, put ia the lathe ac- 
quire a great deal of brilliancy by polishing; a piece of woollen cloth is 
sufficient for the operation. If turpentine predominates too much in 
these compositions, the^olish does not retain its lustre, because the 
heat of the hands is capable of softening the surface of the varnish, 
and in this state it readily tarnishes. 

To varnish Dressing Boxes. The most of spirit of wine varnishes 
are destined for covering prehminary preparat^pns, which have a cer- 
tain degree of lustre. They consist of cement coloured or otherwise. 



tradesman's guide. 109 

charged with landscapes and figures cut out in paper, which produces 
an effect under the transparent varnish; most of the dressing boxes, 
and other small articles of the same kind, are covered with this partic- 
ular compositiou, which, in general, consists of three or four coatings 
of Spanish white, poured in water and mixed Avith parchment glue. 
The first coating is smoothed with pomice stone, and then polished 
with a piece of new linen and water. The coating in this state is fit 
to receive the destined colour, after it has been ground with water. 
The cut figures wdth which it is to be embellished, are then applied, 
and a coating of gum, or fish glue is spread over them, to prevent the 
varnish from penetrating to the preparation, and from spoiling the fig- 
ures. The operation is finished by applying three or four coatings of 
varnish, which, when dry are polished with tripoli and water by means 
of a piece of cloth. A lustre is then given to the surface, with starch 
and a bit of doe skin, or very soft cloth. 

Gallipot Varnish. Twelve ounces gallipot or white incense, five 
ouncfes glass pounded, ,two ounces Venice turpentine, and thirty-two 
ounces essence of turpentine. Make the varnish after the white in- 
cense has been pounded with glass. Some recommend mastic or 
sandarac in the room of gallipot; but it is neither more beautiful nor 
durable; when the colour is ground with the preceding varnish and 
mixed up with the latter, which, if too thick, is thinned wi<^h a little 
essence, and which if applied immediately, witliout any sizing to box- 
es and other articles, the coatings acquire sufficient strength to resist 
the blows of a mallet. But if the varnish be applied to a sized colour, 
it must be covered with a i^arnish of the first or second genus. 

JMastic Gallipot Varnish, for Grinding Colours. Four ounces 
new gallipot or white incense, two ounces mastic, six ounc.es Venice 
turpentine, four ounces pounded glass, and thirty-two ounces essence 
turpentine. With the precautions already indicated, add prepared nut 
oil, or linseed oil, two ounces. The matters ground with this varnish 
d:y more slowly; they ar^^hen nfixed up with the following varnish, if 
it be for common^ainting, or with particular varnishes destined for 
colours and'for grounds. * * 

Mordant Varnish foi^E^ilding. One ounce mastic, one ounce 
guiii sandarac, half an ounce gum guttse^iquarter of an ounce turpen- 
tine, and six ounces essence turpentine. Some artists wiio make use 
of mordants, substitute for the turpentine, an ounce of the essence of 
lavender, which renders this composition less diying. In general the 
compbsitioii of mordants Eulmits of modifications, according to the 
work for which they are destined. The application of them, however, 
is chiefly confined to gold. When it is required -^o fill up a design with 
gold leaf on any ground whatevei-, the composition which is to serve 
as the means^f unjon between tfefe metal and the ground; ought nei- 
ther to be too thick or fluid; because both these circumstances are 
equally injurious to dehcac3i!iin the strokes; it will be requisite, also, 
that the composition should not dry till the artist has completed his 
design. 

Other Mordants. 1. Some prepare their mordants with Jew^s 
pitch and drying oil diluted With essence of turpentine.' They em- 
ploy it for gilding pale^old, or for bronzing. Others imitate the Chi-^ 
nese, and mix with their naordants colours proper for assisting the tone 



110 TUE ARTIST AND 

which they are desirous of giving to the gold, such as yellow, red, &c. 
Others employ fat varnish, to Vviiich they add a little red oxyde of lead. 
Others use thick glue, in Avhich they dissolve alittle honey. This is 
what they call battuzs. When they wish to heighten the colour of the 
gold, this glue is employed, to which the gold leaf adheres extremely 
well. 

2. The qualities of the follov^^ing are fit for any kind of application, 
and particularly to metals. Expose boiled oil to a strong heat in a 
pan; when a black smoke is disengaged from it, set it on fire, and ex- 
tinguish it in a few minutes after, by putting on the cover of the pan. 
Then pour the matter still warm, into a heated bottle, and add to it a 
little essence of turpentine. This mordant dries very speedily; it 
has bpdy, and adheres to, and strongly retains, gold leaf, when applied 
to wood, metal, and other substances. 

Varnish for Pails and other coarse Wood worh. Take any quan- 
tity of tar, and grind it with as much Spanish brown as it will bear, 
without rendering it too thick to be used as a paint or varnish, and then 
spread it on the pails, or other wood, soon as convenient, for it quick- 
ly hardens by keeping. This mixture should be laid on by a large 
brush, the work to be kept free from dust and insects as possible, till 
the varnish is perfectly dry. On wood it will have a very good gloss, 
is an excellent preservative against moisture, on which account, as 
well as its being cheaper, it is far preferable to painting, not only for 
pails, but for weather-boarding and all other kinds of wood work for 
gross purposes. When the glossy brown colour is not liked, the Avork 
may be made of a greyish brown, by mixing a small proportion of 
white lead, or whiting and ivory black, with the Spanish brown. 

A Black Varnish for old St7'aw or Chip Hats. Half an ounce of 
the best black sealing wax, two ounces of rectified spirits of wine. 
Powder the wax, put it with the spirit into a four ounce phial; digest 
them in a sand heat, or near the fire till the wax is dissolved; lay it on 
warm with a fine soft hair brush, before a fire or in the sun. It pro- 
duces a stiffness to old straw hats, and gives a beautiful gloss, and re- 
sists wet. v- 

To make Varnish for Coloured Drawings.^ One ounce Canada bal- 
sam, two ounces spirits of turpentine: mix them together. Before 
this composition is applied, the drawing or print should be sized with 
a solution of isinglass in water; and when dry, apply the varnish with 
a camel's hair brush. 

To make a Varnish for Wood idIucJi resists the action of boiling' 
wafer. One and a half pounds of linseed oil, boil it in a red copper 
vessel, not tinned. Suspend over it in a small linen bag, five ounces 
litharge, and three ounces pulverized minium, taking care that the bag 
does not touch the bottom of the vessel; continue the ebullition till the 
oil acquires a dark brown colour, then take away the bag and substi- 
tute another in its place, containing a clove or garlic; continue the eb- 
ullition, and renew the clove or garlic seven or eight times, or rather 
put them all in at once. Then throw into the vessel a pound of yel- 
low amber, when it is melted in the following manner; add to the 
pound of amber, well pulverized, two ounces hnseed oil; place the 
whole on a strong fire. When the fusion is complete, pour it boiling 
into the prepared linseed oil, and continue to leave it boiling for two or 



three minutes, stirring tiie whole up well. It is then left to settle; the 
composition is decanted and preserved, when it becomes cold, in well 
corked bottles. After polishing the wood on which this varnish is to 
be applied, give the wood the colour required. When the colour is 
perfectly dry, apply the varnish with a fine sponge; repeat three or 
four times, taking care the preceding coat is well dried. 

To varnish Drawings and Card Work. Boil some clean parch- 
ment cuttings in water, in a glazed pipkin, till they produce a very clear 
size. Strain it and keep it for use. Give the work two coats of the 
size, passing the brush quickly over the work, not to disturb the col- 
ours. 

Jt Composition for making Coloured Drawings and Prints resemble 
Paintings in Oil. One ounce Canada balsam, two ounces spirits of 
turpentine; mix together. Before the composition is applied, the 
drawing or print should be sized with a solution of isinglass in water. 
When dry, apply the varnish with a camel's hair brush. 

To varnish Harps and Dulcimers. Prepare the work with size and 
red ochre, then take ochre, burnt umber, and red lead, well ground, 
andmix up a dark brown colour in turpentine varnish, adding so much 
oil of turpentine that the brush may just be able to pass over the work 
fair and even. While yet wet, take a muslin sieve, and sift as much 
Dutch metal, previously powdered upon it, as is requisite to produce 
the effect, after which varnish, and polish it. 

To varnish Glass. Pulverize a quantity of gum adragant; let it dis- 
solve for twenty-four hours in the white of eggs beat up; then rub it 
gently on the glass with a brush. 

To varnish Balloons. Dissolve elastic gum, cut small, in five times 
its weight of rectified essential oil of turpentine, by keeping them to- 
gether; then boil one ounce of this solution in eight ounces drying lin- 
seed oil for a few minutes; strain the solution and use it warm. The 
elastic resin, known by the name of India rubber has been much ex- 
tolled for a varnish. The foregoing method as practised by M. Blan- 
chard may not prove unacceptable. 

To varnish rarijied Air Balloons. M.^v Cavallo, recommends first 
to soak the cloth in a solimon of sal ammonia and common size, using 
one pound of each to every pound of waiter: and when quite dry, to 
paint over the inside with some earthy colour, and strong size or glue, 
when this paint has dried thoroughly, it will then be proper to cover it 
Avith oily varnish, which might dry before it could penetrate quite 
through the cloth. Simple drying linseed oil will answer the pur- 
pose as well as any, provided it be not very fluid. 

To paint Sail Cloth, <^c. so as to he pliant, durable, and impervious 
lo water. Grind ninety-six pounds English ochre, with boiled oil, add 
sixteen pounds black paint, which mixture forms an indifferent black. 
A pound of yellow soap dissolved in six pints of water over the fire, is 
mixed while hot with the paiht. This composition is then laid upon 
the canvass, (without being wetted, as in the usual way,) as stiff as 
can be conveniently done with the brush, so as to form a smooth sur- 
face; the next day, or still better, on the second day, a second coat of 
ochre and black, (without any, or but a very small portion of soap,) is 
laid on and allowing this coat an intermediate day for drying the can- 
vass |s then finished with black paint as usual. Three days is allow- 



112 THE ARTIST AND 

ed for it to dry and harden; it will not stick together when taken down, 
and folded in cloth, containing sixty or seventy yards each; and can- 
vass finished entirely with the composition, leaving it to dry one day 
between each coat, will not stick together if laid in quantities. It has 
been ascertained from actual trials, that the solution of yellow soap 
is a preservative to red, yellow, and black paints, when ground in oil 
and put into casks, as they acquire no improper hardness and dry in 
a remarkable manner when laid on with a brush, without the use of the 
usual drying articles. . It is sui-prising that the adaption of soap, which 
is so well known to be miscible with oily substances, or, at least, the 
alkali of wliich it is composed, has not been brought into use, in the 
composition of all colours. 

Colouring Compositions for rendering Linen and Cloth impenetra- 
ble to water. Begin by washing the stuff with hot water, then dry and 
rub it between the hands until it becomes perfectly supple; afterwards 
spread it out, by drawing it into a frame, and give it with the aid of 
a brush, a first coat, composed of a mixture of eight quarts of boiling 
linseed oil, calcined amber and acetate of lead seven and a half gram- 
mes, to which add ninety grammes of lampblack. Use the same in- 
gredients for the second coat, except the calx of lead. This coat will 
give a few hours, according to the season, afterwards take a dry plaster- 
er's brush and rub the stuff strongly with it, when the hair,by this opera- 
tion will become extremely smooth. The third and last coat will give 
a perfect and durable jet black. Or rather take twelve quarts boiling 
linseed oil, thirty grammes of amber, fifteen grammes of acetate of 
lead, seven and a half sulphate of zinc, fifteen Prussian blue, and 
seven and a half verdigris. Mix them very fine with a little oil, add 
120 grammes of lampblack. These coats are used at discretion as 
is done with painting. 

To thicken Linen Cloth for Screens and, Bed Testers. Grind whit- 
ing with zinc; to prevent cracking, add a little honey; then take a soft 
brush and lay it upon the cloth; repeat this two or three times, but 
letting it dry between the layings; and for the last laying smooth it 
over with Spanish white, ground with linse,ed oil, the oil being first 
heated, and mixed with a small quantity of litharge, the better to en- 
dure the weather, and to be more lasting. 

Common Wax or Varnished Cloth. Common canvass of an open 
and coarse texture,is stretched on frames, placed under sheds, with the 
sides open,to afford a free passage to the external air. The cloth is fas- 
tened to these frames, by hooks, which catch the edge of the cloth, 
and by strong packtlireads passing through holes at the other extremity 
of the hooks, which are tied round moveable pegs at the lower edge 
of the frame. The mechanism by which the strings of a violin are 
stretched or unstretched will give an idea of the arrangement of the 
pegs employed for extending the cloth in this apparatus. By this 
means the cloth can be easily stretched or relaxed, when the oily varnish 
has exercised an action on its texture in the course of the operation. 
The whole being thus arranged, a hquid paste made with drying oil, 
Avhich may be varied at pleasure, is applied to the cloth. 

To make Liquid Paste and Drying Oil. Mix Spanish white, or to- 
bacco pipe clay with water, and leave at rest for some hours, to sepa- 
rate the argillaceous parts, and to produce a sediment. Stir the sedi- 



lis 

tiient with a broom, to complete the division of earth. After it has 
rested some seconds, decant the turbid water into an earthen or wood- 
en vessel. By this process the earth will be separated from the sand 
and other foreign bodies, which are precipitated, and which must be 
thrown away. If washed by the same process on a large scale, it is 
divided by kneading it. The supernatant water is thrown aside, and 
the sediment placed in sieves on pieces of cloth, where it drains; it is 
then mixed up with oil rendered drying, by a large dose of litharge, 
about a fourth of the weight of the oil. The consistence of thin paste 
being given to the mixture, it is spread over the cloth, by means of an 
iron spatula, the length of which is equal to the breadth of the cloth. 
The spatula performs the part of a knife, and pushes forward the ex- 
cess of matter, above the quantity sufficient to cover the cloth. The 
inequalities of the cloth, produced by its coarseness, are smoothed 
down by pumice stone The stone is reduced to powder, and rubbed 
over the cloth Avith a piece of soft serge or cork dipped in water. The 
cloth must then be v/ell washed in water to clean it; and after it is dri- 
ed a varnish of gum lac dissolved in linseed oil boiled with turpentine 
must be applied to it. This preparation produces yelloAvish varnished 
cloth. When wanted black, mix lampblack with the Spanish white, or 
tobacco pipe clay, which forms the basis of the liquid paste; various 
shades may be obtained according to the quantity of the lampblack 
which is added. Umber, Cologne earth, &c. may be used to vary the 
tints, without causing any addition to the expense. 

To prepare fine Printed Varnished Cloth. The process above de- 
scribed may serve to give some idea of that employed for making fine 
cloths of the same kind, decorated with a coloured impression. The 
manufactories of Germany have varnished cloths embellished with 
large and small subjects, figures and landscapes, well executed, and 
which are destined for covering furniture subject to daily use. 

This process, which is oply an improvement of the former, requires 
a finer paste, and cloth of a'more delicate texture: the stratum of paste 
is applied in the same manner, and when dry and polished, the cloth 
is taken from the frame, ami removed to the painter's table, where the 
art of the colourist and deMgner is displayed under a thousand forms, 
and as that in printed cottons, exhibits a richness of tints and a distri- 
bution of subjects, which discover taste, and ensure a ready sale for 
the article manufactured. The processes, however, employed in these 
two arts, to extract the colouring parts, are not the same. In the art of 
cotton printing, the colours are extracted by the bath, as in that of dying. 
In printing varnished cloths, the colouring parts ,p,re the result of the 
union of drying oil, mixed with varnish; and the different colours em- 
ployed in oil painting and painting, in varnish. The varnish applied to 
common oil cloth is composed of^'gum lac and drying linseed oil; 
but that destined for printed varnished cloths requires some choice, 
both in regard to the oil and4he resinous matter which gives it con- 
sistence. Prepared oil of pinks and copal form a varnish very little 
coloured, pliable and solid. 

To prepare Varnished Silk. 1. Varnished silk for umbrellas, &c. 
is prepared in the same manner as the cloths already described; but 
with some variation in the paste or varnish. 

The cloth is placed on a frame as before described; a soft paste 

P 



114 THE ARTIST AXD 

composed of linseed oil. boiled with a fourth partiithargej tobacco pipe 
clay, dried and sifted thro' a silk sieve, sixteen parts, litharge, ground 
on porphyiy with M'ater, dried and sifted in the same manner, three 
parts, and lampblack, one part. This paste is then spread in an uni- 
form m.armer over the surface of the silk by means of a long knife, 
having a handle at the. extremity. In summer, twenty-four hours are 
sufficient for its desiccation. When dry, the knots produced by the 
inequahties of the silk, are smoothed by a pumice stone. This opera- 
tion is performed with water. When linished, the surface of the silk 
is washed; when dry, fat copal varnish is applied. 

If it is intended to polish the varnish, apply a second stratum; af- 
ter which polish it with a ball of cloth and very fine TripoU. The var- 
nished silk, thus made is very black, exceedingly pliable, and has a 
fine pohsh. 

2. A kind of varnished silk which has only a yellowish colour, and 
which suffers the texture of the stufi" to appear, is prepared ^vith a mix- 
ture of three parts boiled oil of pinks, and one part fat copal varnish, 
which is extended with a coarse brush or a knife. Two strata are 
sufficient when oil has been freed from its greasy particles over a slow 
firs, or when boiled with a fourth part of its weight of litharge. 

The inequalities are removed by pumice stone and w^ater, after 
which the copal varnish is applied. 

To recover Varnish. Clean off the filth with a lye made of potash, 
and the ashes of lees of wine; then take forty-eight ounces of potash, 
and sixteen of the above mentioned ashes, and put them into six 
quarts of water, and this completes the lye. 

To polish Varnish. This is effected with pumice stone and Trip- 
oli earth. Reduce the pumice stone to an impalpable powder, and 
put it upon a piece of serge moistened with water; with this rub light- 
ly and equally the varnished substances. The Tripoli must also be 
reduced to a fine powder, and put upon a clean woollen cloth, moist- 
ened with olive oil, with w^hich the polishing is to be performed. The 
varnish then is to be wiped off with soft linen, and when quite dry, 
cleansed with starch, or Spanish white, and rubbed with the palm of 
the hand. 

Amber Varnish with Essence Turpentine. Six or seven ounces 
of liquefied amber, and separated from the oily portions which alter 
its consistence. Reduce the amber to powder, and if the operation 
of pounding forms it into a paste, break it with your fingers; tlien mix 
it v>^ith the essence, and heat the whole in a balneum mariae. It will 
speedily dissolve, and the essence will take up, at least, a fourth part 
of its weight of the prepared amber. When one coating of it is appli- 
ed to white smooth wood, but without any preparation, it forms a very 
pure and durable glazing, which speedily dries, but slower than copal 
varnish. 

Ethereal Copal Varnish. Half an ounce of ambery copal, and 
two ounces of ether. Reduce the copal to a very fine 'powder, and 
introduce it by small portions into the flask which contains the ether; 
close the flask with a glass or cork stopper, and having shaken the 
mixture for half an hour, let it rest till the next morning. In shaking 
the flask, if the sides become covered with small undulations, and if 
the liquor be not exceedingly clear, the solutioil is not complete. In 



tradesman's guide. llo 

this case, add a little etiier, and leave the mixture at rest. The var- 
nish is of a light lemon colour. The largest quantity of copal united 
to ether, may be a fourth, and at least a fifth. The use of copal varnish 
made with ether, seems, by the expense attending it, to be confined to 
repairing those accidents which frequently happen to the enarhel of 
toys, as it will supply the place of glass to the coloured varnishes, em- 
ployed for mending fractures, or to restoring the smooth surface of 
paintings which have been cracked and shattered. The great vola- 
tility of ether, and in particular its high price, do not allow the appli- 
cation of this varnish to be recommended, but for the purpose here in- 
dicated. It has been applied to wood with complete success, and 
the glazing it produced, united lustre to solidity. In consequence of 
the too speedy evaporation of the liquid, it often boils under the brush. 
Its evaporation, however, may be retarded, by spreading over the 
wood a slight stratum of essential oil of rosemary or lavender, or even 
of turpentine, which may afterwards be removed by a piece of linen 
rag; what remains is sutlicient to retard the ether. 

Turpentine Copal Varnish. One and a half ounces copal, of an 
amber colour, and in pov/der, and eight ounces of the best oil of tur- 
pentine. Expose the essence to a balneum mariee, in a wide mouth- 
ed matrass, with a short neck; as soon as the v/ater of the bath begins 
to boil, throw into the essence a large pinch of copal powder, and 
keep the matrass in a circular motion. When the powder is incorpo- 
rated with the essence, add new doses of it; and continue in this man- 
ner till you observe there is formed an insoluble deposite. Then take 
the matrass from the bath, and leave it at rest for some days. Draw 
ofi"the clear varnish, and filter it through cotton. At the moment 
when thb portion of the copal is thrown into the essence, if the pow- 
der precipitates itself under the form of lumps, it is needless to pro- 
ceed any further. This effect arises from two causes; either the es- 
sence does not possess the proper degree of concentration, or it has 
not been sufficiently deprived of water. Exposure to the sun, em- 
ploying the. same malrass to which a cork stopper ought to be ad- 
ded, will give it the qualities requisite for the solution of the copal. 
This effect will be announced by the disappearance of the portion of 
copal already put into it. 

2. Three ounces of copal liquefied, and twenty ounces essence of 
turpentine. Place the matrass containing the oil in a balneum maris?, 
and when the water boils, add the pulverized copal in small doses. 
Keep stirring the mixture, and add no more copal till the former is 
incorporated with the oil. If the oil in consequence of its particular 
disposition can take up three ounces of it, add a little more; but stop 
if the liquid becomes nebulous, then leave the varnish at rest. If it 
be too thick, dilute it with a littlewarm essence after having heated 
it in the balneum mariae. When cold, filter it through cotton, and 
preserve it in a bottle. Thisvarnish has a good consistence, and is 
as free from colour as the best alcohol varnish. W^hen extended in 
one stratum over smooth wood, which has undergone no preparation, 
it forms a very brilliant glazing, which, in the course of two days, in 
summer, acquires all the solidity that may be required. 

The facility which attends the preparation of this varnish, by the new'methoJ here indicat- 
.eJ, will admit of its being applied to all coloured grounds which require solidity, pure whites 



116 THE ARTIST AND 

aloBC excepted; painted boxes, therefore, and all small articles, coloured or otherwise, wheri- 
ever it is required to make the veins appear in all the richness of their tones, call for the ap' 
plication of this varnish, which produces a most beautiful effect, and which is more durable 
than turpentine varnishes composed with other resinous substances. 

Varnish for Watch Cases in imitation of Tortoise Shell. Six oun- 
ces copal, of an amber colour, one and a half ounces Yenice turpen- 
tine, twenty-four ounces prepared linseed oil, and six ounces essence 
©f turpentine. It is customary to place the turpentine over the copal, 
reduced to small fragments, in the bottom of an earthen or metal ves- 
sel, or in a matrass exposed to such a heat as to liquefy the copal; but 
it is more advantageous to liquefy the latter alone, to add the oil in a 
state of ebullition, then the turpentine liquefied, and in the last place 
the essence. If the varnish is too thick, some essence may be add- 
ed. The latter liquor is a regulator for the consistence in the hands 
©f an artist. 

Resinous Drijing Oil. Ten pounds of drying nut oil, if the paint 
is destined for external, or ten pounds drying linseed oil, if for inter- 
Hal articles. Three pounds of resin, and six ounces of turpentine. 
Cause the resin to dissolve in the oil by means of a gentle heat. When 
dissolved and incorporated with the oil, add the turpentine; leave the 
varnish at rest, by which means it will often deposit portions of resin 
and other impurities; and then preserve it in wide mouthed bottles. It 
must be used fresh; when suffered to grow old, it abandons -some of 
its resin. If this resinous oil assumes too much consistence, dilute it 
with a little essence,lf intended for ailicles sheltered from the sun or 
with oil of poppies. 

P- In Switzerland, where the ^principal part of the mason's work consists of stones subject to 
crumble to pieces, it is often found necessarv to give them a coating of oil paint, to stop the 
«ffect of this decomposition. This painting has a great deal of lustre, and when the last coat- 
ing is appliediwith resinous oil, it has the effect of varnish. To give it more durability, the 
first ought to be apphed exceeding warm, and with plain oil, or oil very little charged with the 
grey colour, which is added to fat copal varnish and the varnish to v.atch cases, &c. 

Fat Copal Varnish. Sixteen ounces picked copal, eight ounces 
prepared linseed oil, or oil of poppies, and sixteen ounces turpentine. 
Liquefy the copal in a matrass over a common fire, and then add the 
linseed oil, or oil of poppies, in a state of ebulhtion; when these matters 
are incorporated, take the matrass from the fire, stir the matter till the 
greatest heat has subsided, and then add the essence of turpentine 
■when warm. Strain the whole, while still warm, through a piece of 
linen, and put the varnish into a w^ide mouthed bottle. Time contri- 
butes towards its clarification; and in this manner it acquires a better 
quality. 

To give a ch^ing quality to Fat Oil. Eight pounds nut or linseed 
oil, one ounce white lead, slightly calcined, one ounce yellow acetate 
of lead, (sal saturni)al30 calcined, one ounce sulphate of zinc, (^ white 
vitriol) twelve ounces vitreous oxyde of lead, (litharge) and a head of 
garlic or a small onion When the dry substances are pulverized, 
mix them with the garlic and oil, over a fire capable of maintaining 
the oil in a slight state of ebullition; continue it until the oil ceases 
to throw up scum, till it assumes a reddish colour, and till the head of 
the garlic becomes brown. A pellicle will then be soon formed on the 
«il, which indicates that the operation is completed. Take the ves- 
sel from the fire, and the pellicle, being precipitated by rest, will carry 



tradesman's guide. 117 

^vith it all the unctuous parts which rendered tlie oil tat. "Wlien the. 
oil becomes clear, separate it from the deposite, and put it into wide 
mouthed bottles, where it will completely clarify itself in time, and im- 
prove in quality. 

2. One and a half ounces vitreous oxyde of lead, three-eighths of 
an ounce sulphate of zinc, and sixteen oimces linseed or nut oil. This 
operation must be conducted as in the preceding case. The choice 
of the oil is not a matter of indifference. If it be destined for 
painting articles exposed to the impression of the external air, or for 
more delicate painting, nut oil or poppy oil will be required. Linseed 
oil is used for coarse painting, and that sheltered from the effects of 
the rain and the sun. A little negligence in the management of the 
fire, has often an influence on the colour of the oil, to which a drying 
quality is communicated; in this case it is not proper for delicate paint- 
ing. 

This inconvenience may be avoided by tying up the drying matters 
in a small bag: but the dose of litharge must then be doubled. The 
bag must then be suspended by a piece of packthread, fastened to a 
stick, which is made to rest on the edge of the vessel in such a man- 
ner as to keep the bag at the distance of an inch from the bottom of 
the vessel. A pellicle will be formed, as in the first operation, but it 
will be slower in making its appearance. 

3. A drying quality may be communicated to oil by treating, in a 
heat capable of maintaining a slight ebullition, linseed or nut oil, to 
each pound of which is added three ounces of vitreous oxyde of lead, 
reduced to fine powder. The preparation of floor cloth, and all paint- 
ings of large figures or ornaments, in which argillaceous colours, such 
as yellovv' and red boles, Dutch pink, &c. are employed, require this 
kind of preparation, that the desiccation m.ay not be too slow; but 
painting for which metallic oxydes are used, such as preparations of 
lead, copper, &c. require only the doses before indicated; because 
these oxydes contain a great deal of oxygen, and the oil by their con- 
tact, acquires more of a drying quality. 

4. Two pounds of nut oil, three pounds common water, and tv/o 
ounces sulphate of zinc. Mix these matters and subject them to a 
slight ebullition, until little water remains. Decant the oil, ^vhich 
will pass over, with a small quantity of water, and separate the latter, 
by a funnel. The oil remains nebulous for sometime, after which it 
becomes clear, and seems to be very little coloured. 

5. Six pounds nut or linseed oil, four pounds common water, one 
ounce sulphate of zinc and one head of garlic or a small onion. Mix 
these matters in a common iron or copper pan, then place them over 
the fire, and maintain the mixture in a state of ebulhtion during the 
whole day; boiling water must be added from time to time, to make 
up the 16ss from that by evaporation. The garlic will assume a brown 
appearance. Take the pan from the fire, and having suffered a de- 
posite to be formed, decant the oil, v/hich will clarify itself in the ves- 
sels; by this process the drying oil is rendered somicwhat more col- 
oured; it is reserved for delicate colours. 

To give a drymg quality to Poppy Oil. Three pounds of pure wa- 
ter, one ounce of sulplate of zinc, two pounds oil of pinks, or poppy 
oil. Expose this mixture in an earthen vessel, capable of standing 



118 THE ARTIST ANiJ 

the fire, to a degree of heat sufficient to maintain it in a siight state oi' 
ebullition. Wlien one half or two-thirds of the water has evaporated, 
pour the whole into a large glass bottle or jar, and let it rest, till the 
oil becomes clear. Decant the clearest part by means of a glass fun- 
nel, the beak of which is stopped with apiece of cork. When the sep- 
aration of the oil from the water is completely effected, remove the 
cork stopper, and supply its place by the fore finger, which must 
be applied in such a manner as to sutler the water to escape, and to 
retain only the oih Poppy oil when prepared in this manner, becomes 
after some weeks exceedingly limpid and colourless. 

To mahe Varnish for Silk, t^-c. To one quart of cold drawn lin- 
seed oil, poured off from the lees, (produced on the addition of un- 
slacked lime, on which the oil has stood eight or ten days at the least, 
in order to communicate a drying quality, or brown umber burnt and 
powdered which will have the like effect,) and half an ounce of lith- 
arge; boil them for half an hour, then add ha«f an ounce copal varnish. 
While the ingredients are on the fire in a copper vessel, put in one 
ounce Chios turpentine, or common resin, and a few drops neat's foot 
oil, and stir the whole with a knife; when cool, it is ready for use. 
The neat's foot oil prevents the varnish from being sticky or adhesive, 
and may be put into linseed oil at the same time with the lime, or 
burnt umber. Resin or Chios turpentine may be added, till the var- 
nish has attained the desired thickness. 

The longer the raw linseed oil remains on the unslacked lime or umber, the sooner will the 
oil dry after it is used; if some months so much the better; such varnish will set, that is to say 
not run, but keep its place on the silk in four hoursj the sllli may then be turned, and var- 
nished on the other side. 

To make pliable Varnish for Umbrellas. Take any quantity of 
caoutchouc, as ten or tv/elve ounces, cut into small bits, and put into 
a ladle, such as plumbers, glaziers, &c. melt their lead in, over a com- 
mon pit coal or other fire, which must be gentle, glowing, and without 
smoke. When the ladle is hot, put a single bit into it; if black smoke 
issues, it will flame and disappear, or it will evaporate without flame; 
the ladle is then too hot. When the ladle is less hot, put in a sec- 
ond bit, which will produce a white smoke; this white smoke will con- 
tinue during the operation, and evaporate the caoutchouc; therefore, 
no time is to be lost, but little bits are to be put in, a few at a time, 
till the whole are melted; it should be continually and gently stirred 
with an iron or brass spoon. The instant the smoke changes from 
white to black, take off the ladle, or the whole will break out into a vi- 
olent flame, or be spoiled, or lost. Care must be taken that no water 
is added, a few drops of which, on account of its expansibility, makes 
it boil over furiously and with a great noise; at this period of the pro- 
cess, one quart of the best drying oil is to be put into the melted ca- 
outchouc, and stirred till hot, and the whole poured into a glazed ves- 
sel through a coarse gauze, or wire sieve. When settled and clear, 
which will be in a few minutes, it is fit for use. The silk should al- 
ways be stretched horizontally by pins or tenter hooks on frames, and 
the varnish poured on cold in hot weather, and hot if cold weather. 
The art of laying it on properly, consists in making no intense motion 
in the varnish, which would create minute bubbles, therefore, brushes 
of every kind are improper, as each bubble breaks in diying, and forms 



tradesman's GUISE. lid 

a small hole, through which the air will transpire. This varnish is 
pUant, unadhesive, and unalteraljle by weather. 

Transparent Japan for Tin Ware. Oil of turpentine, eight ounces, 
oil of lavender, six ounces, copal, two ounces, camphor, one drachm. 

Drying Oil. Linseed oil, two pints, litharge or ceruse, one ounce; 
dissolve with heat; added to paints to make them dry sooner. 

Le Blondes Varnish for Prints. Balsam copaiva four pounds, co- 
pal in powder, one pound; add by single ounces every day to the bal- 
sam, keeping it in a warm place, or in the sun, stirring it frequently;' 
when all is dissolved, add Chios turpentine, q. p. 

Sheldrake^ s Copal Varnish. Oil turpentine, ret. veri. one pint, sal 
ammoniac two ounces: mix; add copal in small pieceg, two ounces; 
stop the vessel with a cork cut in grooves; bring it quickly to boil, that 
the bubbles may be counted as they rise; and keep it at that heat; if 
the least stoppage or overheating takes place, it is in vain to proceed. 
Then leave the vessel till quite cold, before you open it; otherwise the 
varnish will be thrown out with violence. 

Sheldrake's Oil for Painting. Nut or poppy oil, one pint, boil; 
add ceruse, two ounces, when dissolved, add a pint of copal varnish, 
previously warmed, and stir it till the oil of turpentine is evaporated; 
gives more brightness than common drying oil, but less than varnish 
only; loses its dry quality in time, therefore, only so much as is suffi- 
cient for a month or six weeks' consumption should be prepared at 
once. 

Varnish to he laid on Gilding and Silvering. Grind verdigris, on 
marble with common water, in which saffron has been infused for eight 
hours. 

A Common Varnish. Sandarac eight ounces, tereb. Venit. six ounces, 
spirits wine, rectified, two pints. 

White Varnish. Gum juniper, one pound, Stratsburg turpentine, 
six ounces, spirits wine, rectified, two pints, used upon paper, wood, 
and linen. 

White Hard Varnish. Mastic, four ounces, gum juniper, tereb. 
Venit. of each three ounces (to prevent the gums forming an impene- 
trable mass,) add four ounces pounded glass, spirits wuie rectified, two 
pints, used upon cards, sheaths, &c. 

White Polishing Varnish. Mastic in tears, two ounces, gum ju- 
niper, eight ounces, gum elemi, one ounce, tereb. argent, four ounces, 
spirits wine rectified, two pints; used upon metals, polished with pum- 
ice stone. 

Transparent Copal Varnish. Spirits wine fully charged with cam- 
phor, four ounces, copal in fine powder, one ounce; dissolve, filter: 
add the filtered liquor to spirits of wine, one part, in which gum elemi 
one ounce, has been previously dissolved. 

2. Spirits wine rectified, one pint, camphor, half an ounce; dissolve: 
pour it upon copal in small pieces, four ounces; heat it so that the bub- 
bles which rise may be counted; when cold, pour it off and add more 
spirits to the residuum: used for pictures. 

3. Copal, melted and poured into water, three ounces, gum sanda- 
rac six ounces, mastic three ounces, terib. argent, two ounces and a 
half, pounded glass, four ounces, spirits wine rectified, two pints; used 
for metals, chairs, &c. 



1'20 THE AUTIST AND 

Soft Brilliant Varnish. Gum sandarac, six ounces, gum eleni' 
four ounces, camphor, four drachms, spirits wine rectified, tvro pints; 
used upon wood work and pasteboard. 

Reddish Famish. Gum sandarac, eight ounces, lava in tabulis, 
two ounces, resina nigri, four ounces, tereb. Yenit. six ounces, spirits 
vvine rectified, two pints: used on wood and metals. 

Red Varnish. Sandarac, four ounces, seed-lac, two ounces, mas- 
tic, choice Benjamin, of each one ounce; turpentine two ounces, spir- 
its wine rectified two pints; used for violins and cabinet work. 

JYut Oil. From the kernel of the hazel nut, very fine; substituted 
for oil of Benjamin, as it will keep better than that of almonds; it has 
been proposed in the college lists, to be substituted for that oil, being 
nearly equal to it; is drank with tea in China, probably in heu of cream; 
used by painters as a superior article for their colours. 

Hemp Oil. From hemp seed, used by the painters as a drying oil. 

Walnut Oil. Makes good plasters, but will not keep; used by 
painters; is very drying; they yield about half their weight of oil. 

Picture Varnish. Mastic, twelve ounces, Venit. turpentine, two 
ounces four drachms, camphor, thirty grains, pounded glass, four 
ounces, oil turpentine, tlii-ee pints and a half: pour off the clear; used 
to oil paintings. 

Gold Varnish for Leather. Tumeric, gamboge, of each one scru- 
ple and a half, oil turpentine two pints; add seed-lac, gum sandarac, 
of each four ounces, dragon's blood four drachms, Venit. turpentine, 
tv.'o ounces, pounded glass, four ounces; pour off the clear. 

Copal Varnish. Oil turpentine, thickened by keeping, eight ounces, 
copal, two ounces and a half. 

2. Oil turpentine, six ounces, oil lavender, two ounces, copal, one 
ounce. 

Common Turpentine Varnish. . Resin flav. three pounds, eight 
ounces, oil terebinth, one gallon. 

Varnish for Coloured Drawings. Canada balsam, one ounce, oil 
turpentine two ounces: size the drawing first with a jelly of isinglass, 
and when dry, apply the varnish; which will malie them resemble oil 
paintings. 

Black Japan Leather. Boiled linseed oil, one gallon, burnt umber 
eight ounces, asphaltum, three ounqes, boil and add oil terebinth, q. s. 

Scouring Drops. Oil terebinth, scented with essence lemon. 

Furniture Oil. Oil lini, coloured with rad. anchusae. 

Furniture Varnish. White wax, eight ounces, oil terebinth, one 
pint. 

Bronzing Liquor. It is blue vitriol, dissolved in water; used to 
bronze tea urns, &c. the surface being previously well cleaned. 

Blue or Green Sympathetic Lih. Drop a tea spoonful of zaffre in- 
to a third of the wine glass of nitro-muriatic acid. After standing awhile, 
write on paper; the v.riting vrill be invisible cold, but on heating the 
paper the writing will be blue, unless there is a little iron in the zaffre, 
which will give it a green hue. If a little common salt in solution had 
been added, the WTiting would disappear on removing from the fire. 

Invisible Lik. Whittle off a little bismuth into a wine glass. Drop 
in a little common nitric acid diluted with half as much water. Vio- 
lent action \\i\\ commence; when it ceases the nitrate will be formed 



TRADLSMAIs S GUIBE. 12 i 

ui the liquid state. Dip a clean pen into it and write as with ink; 
hold the paper near a lire, but not so near as to heat it, the letters will 
become invisible; now dip it into water or hold it in a steam over boil- 
ing water, and on taking it out, the letters will become visible, and ap- 
pear as if written with pale ink. 

After a short time the v.riting will disappear, and leave not a vestige 
to prove a forgotten promise. 

CalloVs rarnisk. Two ounces finest linseed oil, Benjamin in drops, 
two drachms, white wax the bulk of a fiibes-t, boil all together, till it is 
reduced to one-third, stirring it constanlly. Yvlien done, put 'it into a 
large mouthed phial. Warm the plate intended to be engraven, and 
for which this varnish is designed, and with the fmger pass it over the 
place, leaving it shghtly coated, and smooth; after which smoke the 
plate on the varnished side, with a candle, until It is black in every 
part. Place the plate over a chafing dish, with charcoal fire, and 
when it has done fuming, the varnish has become sufficiently harden- 
ed, when it is prepared to chalk, draw and etch, whatever is desired. 
This varnish was used by Cailot, to engrave his most admired sub- 
jects. 

CHAPTER XXIIi. 
COMMERCE AND MANUF^ACTURES. 

Commerce is the interchange of commodities, or the disposal of 
produce of any kind for other articles, or for some representative of 
value for which other articles can be procured, with a view of making 
a profit by the transaction. The term is usually restricted to the 
mercantile intercourse between different countries. The internal 
dealings betv/een individuals of the same country, either for the supply 
of immediate consumption, or for carrying on manufactures, is more 
commonly denominated trade. Those who engage their capital in 
commerce or trade, act as agents between the producers and the con- 
sumers of the fruits of the earth; they purchase them of the former, 
and sell them to the latter; and it is by the profits on the sale that cap- 
ital so employed yields a revenue or income. Commerce or trade in- 
creases the wealth of a nation; not by raising produce, like agricul- 
ture, nor by working up raw materials, hke manufactures; but it gives 
an additional value to commodities by bringing them from places 
where thiey are picntiful, to those where they are scarce; and by pro- 
viding the means for their more extended distribution, both the agri- 
cultural and manufacturing classes are incited to greater industiy. 

Agriculture never arrives at any considerable, much less at its high- 
est degree of perfection, where it is not connected with trade; that is, 
where the demand for the produce is not increased by the consump- 
tion of trading cities. Though it should be remembered that agricul- 
ture is the immediate source of human provision; tiiat trade conduces 
to the production of provision only as it promotes agriculture; and 
that the whole system of commerce, vast and various as it is, has no 
public importance but its subserviency to this end. 

The province of a trader is not so contemptible as some would affect 
to make it. Many prefer to educate their children for what are call- 
*;d the professions, as law, divinitv. and physic, rather than merchan- 

Q 



122 THE ARTIST AND 

dise; if sUch preferment is merely given, as a most likely means of 
acquiring eitlier honour, preferment, or riches, we will be enabled to 
convince them in this chapter, their estimation is made by a wrong 
standard. The celebrated Mr. Locke has obseiTed that trade was a 
surer and shorter way to riches than any other. And after recom- 
mending people to bring op their children to some trade, says, if the 
mistaken parent, frightened with the name of trade, shall have an aver- 
sion to any thing of this kind in their children, he recommends teach- 
ing them merchants' accounts, as a science well becoming any gentle- 
man. Lord Bacon saith, ''that trade enables the subjects to live plen- 
tifully and happily; and that the realm is much enriched of late years, 
by the trade of merchandise." And elsewhere, he stiles the merchants 
vena porta; and says, "if they flourish not, a kingdom may have good 
limbs, but will have empty veins, and flourish little." The learned 
Bishop of Cambray gives his sentiments on the subject, and says, 
speaking of the Phoenicians' "trade, which they carry to the farthest 
quarters of the earth, has so enriched them, that they surpass the most 
flourishing people in glory." 

And again, instructing Telemachus, how to establish a flourishing 
trade in Ithaca, he says, "do as those people do, receive with kindness 
and with ease all strangers; and never suffer yourself at any time to 
be overcome with pride and avarice. Make yourself beloved of all 
strangers; and even bear with slight inconveniences from them; keep 
a strict hand over the fraud, negligence, and vain glory of the mer- 
chants, which ruins commerce in ruining the traders themselves." 
The mercantile station afixjrds as large a prospect for opulent acquisi- 
tions as any other, and estates got by trade have, perhaps, been far 
more numerous, than those by any other way whatever. The relation 
v.'hich the merchant stands in to community , is not inferior to any in point 
of importance. Their zealous attachment to their country, where 
they have been protected in their commerce, can be fully maintained. 
History furnishes remarkable instances of this fact. We shall only 
mention a few, which are sufficient to endear the character of a mer- 
chant to every nation. 

Charles V. Emperor of Germany, being reduced to great distress, 
by the unhappy expedition of Tunis, experienced a powerful succour 
of money from the Fuggers, a single family of merchants only, but at 
the same time the most opulent and distinguished traders in Augs- 
burg. For security, his majesty gave them written obligations, under 
his own hand and seal. To give a demonstration of their zeal to the in- 
terests of their country, and their inviolable attachment to his majesty, 
these merchants requested the emperor, one day as he was taking an 
airing by their house, to do them the honour to regale himself, to which 
his majesty condescended. When the collation was over, they desir- 
ed permission of the emperor to burn a faggot of cinnamon in the hall, 
where the entertainment was made, not only with intent to administer 
all they could to the emperor's delight, but to give further proof of 
their aflection to his person and government, which they did, by bind- 
ing up those bonds of security, which they had taken for their money, 
with the faggot, and set fire to them before his face. 

James Coeur, a merchant of Bourges, by the wisdom of his coun- 
sel, and the certainty of his cash, humbled the house of Burgundy, se- 



tradesman's guide. 123 

cured the crown of France to the lawful heir, Charles VII. and by 
him to the branches of Valois and Bourbon, who succeeded. 

The merchants of St. Malo, being highly exasperated at the de- 
mand made at the Congress of Gertruydenburg to Lewis XIV. of 
employing his troops to compel his grandson Philip V. then King of 
Spain, to abandon the crown, united all their profits together, M'hich 
they had made in tlie Spanish Colonies of America, and produced thir- 
ty-two millions of gold at the foot of the throne: and at a tirr:e when 
the finances of France were totally exhausted by a series of unsuc- 
cessful events. This succour being timely applied, vigorously re- 
newed the war, and answered the wishes of the nation. 

Sir Thomas Gresham, the founder of a college in Lt>ndon, for the 
promotion of the liberal arts, and of the Royal Excharge, for the con- 
venience of the traders of the metropolis, is another insfance of the 
ability of private merchants to support government under the greatest 
emergency. ' This worthy citizen of London lived in the time of Ed- 
ward VI. who was considerably indebted to 0e merchants of Ant- 
werp, for the money borrowed to si^pp'y the exigencies of the state. 
Payment of interest, at that time, being a great imcumbrance to the 
nation, many expedients were projected by /he king and council, to 
discharge those debts; which were, either t/ transport so much treas- 
ure out of the country, as would liquid atcytliem, or remit the same by 
way of exchange. The former was imp!;i^cticable without being ruin- 
ous to trade; and on account of the direrence of exchange, the latter 
appeared equally perplexing, Besid/ the creditors insisted on their 
money, or a compliance with such usurious terms, as would have been 
the highest indignity upon the nation. Under these circumstances, 
Sir Thomas undertook the affair,,/nd by his great knowledge and skill 
in the exclianges, exonerated t;ke nation from the incumbrance; and 
by which negotiations, the kir^ saved not less than an hundred thou- 
sand marks, clear.^ By raismg the exchange in favour of England at 
this critical time, the price/)f all foreign commodities f?ll proportiona- 
bly; and in a. very little <vhile between three and four hundred thou- 
sand pounds sterling mora was saved to'the nation. With Queen Eliz- 
abeth, he was in so hi^^ii esteem, that she knighted him, and honour- 
ed him in every respect, and came in person to the Exchange, which 
he had erected fof the convenience of merchants, and the honour of 
the city of Londq;), and caused the same to be proclaimed by heralds 
and a trumpet, t^e Royal Exchange, and Sir Thomas was afterwards 
honoured by the appellation of royal merchant. 

Thomas Sutton, Esq. another distinguished English merchant, tind 
founder of the Charter House in London, did an act of benevolence 
worthy of a great prince, a few years after the death of Sir Thomas 
Gresham, in being the grand instrument of getting the Spanish bills 
protested at Genoa, which retarded for a whole year the sailing of the 
Spanish Armada, designed to invade England; by which means the 
plan was defeated. Thus we learn the worth of some private mer- 
chants; and although great statesmen, admirals, and generals, ^vith 
the aid of the public purse, and ten thousands to co-operate with them, 
may perform great achievements, yet we find that one family of mer- 
chants has been the support of an emperor in great distress; another 
vsjngle merchant, gave the crown to the house of Bourbon; that one 



124 - TilE ARTIST AND 

was the principal cause of defeating the Spanish Armada; and anoth- 
er, the restorer of the public credit of England. The merit of persons 
of distinguished character in trade, cannot, in general, be measured 
by those who are not well acquainted with trading negotiations; as they 
pass through life without much noise, the world is little acquainted 
with their important services and utility to the state. 

Whilst the liistories of great public capacities are transmitted to pos- 
terity vMh. all the pomp and magniiicence of representation: yet cer- 
tainly that is one of the most profitable admonitions, which is drawn 
from the erqinent virtues of men, who move in a sphere nearer level- 
led to the coxiimon reach, than that which is derived from the splen- 
did portrait of the transactions and victories of great statesmen and 
commanders, vhich serve but for the imitation of fcv/, and aim rather 
for the ostentatioci, than for the true instruction of human life. It is 
from the practice ^\d examples of private condition, that we are more 
naturally taught to ^xcel in our private capacities; and, had we the 
genume histories of n^any eminent merchants, giving a lively idea of 
their rise and progress in business, and of their important service they. 
have been to their respective communities, they would naturally incite 
the trading class of community to emulate their accomplishments: and 
this would prove a more effectual means to produce a I'ace of skilful 
traders, than romantic narratives of a race of heroes. Nor'has the 
security of states and empit^s been only owing to the occasional zeal- 
ous exertion of the wisdom arid pov.er of the merchants, but they are 
in a great measure the daily and perpetual support of ail trading 
countries. 

For, as nations are at present circumstanced, those which are so 
situated, subsisting chiefly within themselves, without any intercourse 
of commerce with others, can nevei be able to maintain so great a 
share of power, as those which carry on an extended foreign traffic. 
Domestic trade, only shifting property i:om hand to hand, cannot in- 
crease the riches and power of a nation-, whilst foreign trade under 
w^ise laws and regulations, bringing in a constant balance of treasure 
in favom- of a nation, will proportionably augment its weight of inter- 
est, and at lengtli give it the balance of poweix 

The philosopher may arrive to a high pitch of improvement in agri- 
culture, arts and sciences; the husbandman, art\san and manufactur- 
er, may reduce this speculative knov, ledge to practical uses, with the 
greatest skill and dexterity on their parts; governments may enact 
the wisest laws, and give all desirable encouragement to commerce, 
yet w^hat will these avail without the penetration and sagacity of the 
merchant, to propagate the produce of our lands, «nd the labour 
of our artists and manufacturers into foreign countries, with advantage 
to the state as well as to himself? "It is foreign trade," says an Eng- 
lish la-t^'yer, "that is the main sheet anchor of us islander^; without 
which, tiie genius of all our studies, which render men famous and re- 
nowned,would make them useless and insignificant to the public. When 
man has fathomed the bottom of all knowledge, what is it, if not reduced 
to practice, but an empty notion] If the inhabitants of this island, were 
learned in all the languages between the rising and setting sun, did 
know and understand the situation of all places, ports, and countries, 
mid the nature of all merchandise and commodities, were acquainted 



TnADES31A>i's GUID|. 125 

with the order and motion of all the stars, knew how to take the lati- 
tude and longitude, and were perfectly read in the art of navigation, 
to what purpose would be all, if there were no foreign trade ? We 
should have no ships to navigate to those countries, nor occasion to 
make use of those languages, nor to make use of those commodities; 
what would tbas island be but a place of confinement to the inhabitants, 
v/ho without it, would be but a kind of hermits, as separated from the 
the rest of the world; it is foreign trade that renders us rich, honour- 
able and great; that gives us a name and esteem in the world; that 
makes us masters of the treasures of other nations and countries, and 
begets and maintains our ships and seamen, the walls and bulwarks 
of our country; and were it not for foreign trade, what would become 
of the revenue for customs, and what would the rents of our lands be? 
the customs would totally fail, and our gentleman's rents of thousands 
per annum would dwindle into hundreds.' 

Since, then, as Lord Chancellor Bacon observes, '■^Jtler chants and 
Traders are in a state vjfiat the blood is to the bodrj" tlfefre naturally 
arises, the idea ofdigniiy, as inseparately annexed to the character of 
the merchant. Merchants it is true are not exempted from those cas- 
ualties, to which the whole human species are liable; yet in the way 
of trade these are often balanced by prosperous contingencies. 

When it happens otherwise, the really unfortunate scarce ever want 
succour in distress. Even when misfortunes have proceeded from 
unhappy mistakes in point of conduct, yet, where neither integrity nor 
skill have been wanting, such rarely fail to rice again, in some reputa- 
ble channel of business or other, dependant on merchants, of which 
there are numberless instances. No class of citizens are more feeling 
and energetic in acts of benevolence; of v/hich our ov/n country is 
fruitful in examples. 

That experienced merchant Sir F. Brewster, who lived in the reign of 
King William III. proposed a way of educating young men of condi- 
tion and fortune as m-erchants to practical commerce. "I think it a 
moral distemper," says Sir Francis, "that we have so few men of uni- 
versity learning conversant in true mercantile employments; if there 
was as much care to have men of the best heads and education in it, 
as there is in the kw, the nation would fetch more from abroad and 
spend less in lawsuits at home." He further observes, "that it would 
be an astonishing observation to any countryman but our own, to see 
more heads employed in Westminster Hall to divide the gain of the nation, 
than there are heads on the Exchangeto gather it." And further, 'hesa3's, 
"we see how the arts and sciences have been improved in this king- 
dom within the compass of one century, but amongst them all, the mer- 
chants part the least; I speak notthisto abate the respect due totheir pro- 
fession, and ail men in it; but we know it is the vanity of the nation; 
scarce a tradesman if he has a son, whom a country school master tells 
him weuld make a scholar, because he learns his grammar well, whose 
kindred think it a pity so hopeful a youth should be lost in trade, and 
that the university is the only soil fit for him to be planted in." 

Before we conclude, v/e request the reader to observe, the above re- 
marks of Sir Francis are not introduced, as applicable to this coun- 
try generally; for we do rejoice in the belief, the mercantile character 
of the nation is daily increasing in dignity; that young men of refined 



.126 THE ARTIST AND 

taste, requisite qualifications, and most promising talents are engaging 
in merchandise; and that the public feeling, which hitherto, has been 
so unnaturally excited against the profession, has nearly subsided. We 
believe there is a dignity, or as some will have it, a respectability of 
character attached to every profession. The following article, which 
we extract from the New-York Courier, headed ^' Scale of respectabili- 
ty,^^ is expressive of our views in regard to distinction, though rather lu- 
dicrous. "It is a matter of curious investigation, to examine the dis- 
tinctions wliich society has made, amongst the different trades and 
professions, 'a saint in crape is twice a saint in lawn,' says Pope; and 
yet he tells us, 'that honour and shame from no condition rise;' the 
latter is true by the laws of nature; the former by the usages of socie- 
ty. Whether a lawyer is more respectable than a doctor, or a mer- 
chant than a farmer, is a question that has not yet been settled by her 
high mightiness, Fashion; but with respect to the different pursuits of 
trade, she has drawn the distinction, having consulted neither reason 
or rhyme, and governs solely by her own whims. A butcher, for in- 
stance, is considered as superior to a baker; — and why? They both 
cater for the appetite of man; one furnishes the slaughtered calf, and 
the other the generous grain, which alike support life; one deals in fire, 
and the other in sword; are they not on a par? A shoemaker is more 
respectable than a cobbler; — -why? one makes your shoes, and the 
other mends them — they both use awls and waxed ends; where is the 
difference? 

"Is a hatter more exalted than a tailor? The one covers 'the dome 
of thought, the palace of the soul !' his vocation is certainly of 
the head; he surmounts the crown; but then the tailor adorns the 
graceful form and manly chest: the waistcoat that he makes covers 
the heart, the seat of sensation and the abode of passion. He makes 
you either a gentleman or a clown, according to his will. You are at 
his mercy with regard to the fit of your habiliments and the effect of 
your appearance in Broadway. Thus extensive is his power; and is 
not power respectability? A milliner is more respected in society than 
a mantua-maker; the one makes hats, and the other dresses. Why is 
a female hatter greater than a. female tailor? Why is a grocer consider- 
ed inferior to a seller of dry goods? Is not a bottle of mustard as res- 
pectable as a yard of tape? Is not a pound of cheese as honourable as 
a paper of pins? A bunch of onions as a skein of thread? Is not su- 
gar equal to broadcloth, and molasses to ginghams? Certainly. 

"Again, why is a saddler superior to a shoemaker? He covers the 
backs of horses, while the latter covers the feet of men. And is not 
the foot of lordly man and lovely woman, an object of greater moment 
than the back of Eclipse himself •' How and why then are these dis- 
tinctions made? It is easier to ask than to answer the question; to do 
the latter, surpasses our wisdom. But are these distinctions reason- 
able and natural? No. Honest industry is alike respectable in every 
vocation. The faithful mason, who piles one brick upon another, is 
the equal of him who makes the bricks, or him who burns the lime 
which is used in making the mortar; [and we might add, or him for 
whose comfort his labour is destined to effect.] The industrious me- 
chanic is the prop of society, and so long as he labours diligently arid 
honestly in his occupation, he is entitled to respectability, and he will 



tradesjian's glide. I2t 

receive it.*' Nevertheless, it must be acknoM'ledged, and to the de- 
gradation of human nature be it said, there are many in all professions, 
dishonouring them by the flattery of some, and their own unnatural 
conceit. 

Manufactures are the arts by which natural productions are brought 
into the state or form in which they are consumed or used. They 
require in general great expen-es for their first establishment, costly 
machines for shortening manual labour, and money and credit for 
purchasing materials from distant countries. There is not a single 
manufacture of Great Britain which does not require, in some part of 
its process, productions from different parts of the globe. It requires, 
therefore, ships, and a friendly intercourse with foreign nations, to 
transport commodities and exchange productions. They w^ould not 
be a manufacturing, unless they were a commercial nation. The two 
sciences which most assist the manufacturer, are mechanics and chem- 
istry; the one for building mills, working mines, and in general for 
constructing machines, either to shorten the labour of man by perform- 
ing it in less time, or to perform what the strength of man alone could 
not accomplish; the other for fusing and working ores, d\ing, bleach- 
ing, and extracting the virtues of vaiious rfubstances for particular oc- 
casions. 

It must be observed that though a farmer does not so frequently 
and rapidly amass wealth as a merchant or manufacturer, yet neither 
is he so often ruined. The risks a man encounters in trade are much 
greater than in farming. The manufacturer as well as the merchant 
is liable to severe losses arising from contingencies in trade; they 
both must therefore have a chance of making proportionably greater 
profits. The chances of gain must balance the chances of loss. If 
he be so skilful or so fortunate as to make more than his average share 
of gain, he will accumulate wealth w^ith greater rapidity than the fann- 
er; but should either a deficiency of talents or unfortunate circumstan- 
ces occasion an uncommon share of losses, he may become a bank- 
rupt. The rate of profits, therefore, upon any employment of capital, 
is proportioned to the risks with which it is attended; but if calculat- 
ed during a sufficient period of time, and upon a sufficient number of 
instances to afford an average, these different modes of employing cap- 
ital, will be found to yield similar profits. It is owing to this that the 
distribution of capital to the several branches of agriculture, commerce, 
and manufactures, preserve a due equilibrium, which, though it may 
be accidentally disturbed, cannot whilst allowed to pursue its natural 
course, be permanently deranged. 

An abundant harvest may occasionally raise the rate of agricultural 
profits, or a very bad season may reduce them below their level. 

The opening a trade wdth a new country, or the breakino; out of a 
v/ar, which impedes foreign commerce, will affect the profits of the 
merchant and manufacturer: but these accidents disturb the equal rate 
of prtifits, as the wind disturbs the sea; and when they cease, it re- 
turns to its natural level. 

The division of labour has tended greatly to improve every manu- 
facture. Its utility is exemplified in Ihe manufacture of pin's. If a 
piece of metal were given to a man to make a pin, he could -gcarcely 
do it in a day. In pin manufiictories, however, each pin passes throuo-li 



12S TiiE AilXiST AND 

tvveaty-fiA''e hands; -one draws out the wire, another straightens itj 
another cuts, another points it, three or four prepare the head, two or 
three put it on, &c. Twenty ^five persons thus make one hundred 
and twenty-five thousand pins in a day, or five thousand to each per- 
son. Labour Hkewise divides itself numerously in every branch of 
the elegant and useful arts, as in building, the arts connected in fur- 
nishing a house, in branches connected with the clothing of a man, in 
the iron and metallic trades, and in connexion with books and litsra- 
ture. 

A pack of wool weigliing 240 pounds employs 200 persons before 
it is ready for sale, in the form of stuffs, cloths, &c. To be made in- 
to stockings, it will occupy 184 persons for a week; as ten combers,' 
one hundred spinners, winding, &c. sixty weavers or stocking ma- 
kers, besides dyers, pressers, &c. ' A sw^ord made of steel, the ori- 
ginal metal of which was not worth a shilling, is sometimes sold for 
300 guineas; and a w^atch chain has produced fifty guineas, the met- 
al of which before it was vvrought, was not worth three pence. So 
likewise, a painting, not two yards square, has been valued at 25,000 
pounds sterling; and a shawl, which contained but a few ounces of 
wool, has been said to bring 150 guineas. As it is with individuals, 
so it is with nations. What one possesses in superfluity, it is desirous 
to exchange for some article it wants, with any other nation which pos-^ 
sesses that superfluity. 

The Phoenicians, or Philistines were the ni-st people on record, who 
employed ships to carry the produce and manufactures of one nation 
to another. They were followed by the Carthagenians; and these by 
the Venetians, Genoese and Hanse Towns. The United States of 
America, with the advantages of the possession of raw materials of ev- 
ery kind, numerous fine ports, and a free government, are rapidly ad- 
vancing in the manufacturing system; having numerous ships and a 
trade extended to all parts of the world. With this advantage con- 
nected with the enterprise, perseverance and industry of our merchants, 
manufacturers and mechanics, who can doubt the time is not far dis- 
tant, when this country will rival every other on the whole face of the 
globe in commerce and manufactures. 

CHAPTER XXIV. 

THE ART OF DYING. 

Dying is a chemical process, and consists in combining a certairi 
colouring matter vdth fibres of cloth. The facility with which cleth 
imbibes a dye, depends upon two circumstances; the union of the cloth 
and the dyestuff or dying material and the fluid in which it is dissolv- 
ed. Wool unites with almost all colouring matters, silk in the next de- 
gree, cotton considerably less, and Hnen the least of all. To dye cot- 
ton or linen, the dyestuif or colouring material, should, in many ca- 
ses, be dissolved in a substance for which it has a weaker connfxion, 
than with the solvent employed it the dying of wool or silk. Thus we 
may use the colour called oxyde of iron, dissolved in sulphuric acid, to 
die -wool; but to die cotton and linen, it is necessary to dissolve it in 
acetous acid. Were it possible to procure a snfficient number of col- 
nurin-T substances, having a strong affinity for cloths, to ansv/er all the 



TRADESMAN S GUIDE. 129 

purpose the ait of dying would be extremely simple and easy. But this 
is by no means the case. This difficulty has, however, been obviated 
by a very ingenious contrivance. Some other^substance is employed 
which strongly unites with the cloth and the colouring matter. This 
substance, therefore, is previously combined with the cloth, which is 
then dipped into a solution containing the colour. The colour then, 
combines with the intermediate substance, which being firmly com- 
bined with the cloth, secures the permanence of the die. Substances 
employed for this purpose are denominated mordants. 
, The method of colouring a scarlet die, was discovered by Corne- 
lius Drebble, a citizen of Alemaar, a man extremely well skilled in 
chemistry. Among other experiments, he left an account of one, con- 
cerning the method of dying wool with a bright flame colour; which his 
son in law Kufflaar, afterwards put in practice, and by which means 
he made a fortune. Spirit of nitre has been found to improve the 
rich colour of cochineal, into the brightness of burning fire; but its 
acrimony corrodes and damages the wool, which is prevented by dul- 
cifying it with tin, after which, it neither hurts wool or silk. Chemis- 
try is likewise obvious in another point of view. "I once showed," 
says the learned Boerhaave, "colours which! had prepared from solu- 
tions of copper, to some skilful master diers, who were surprised 
with the beauty of them, and would have given any money to have 
been able to give colours of such brightness to their stuffs, &c.; and no 
wonder, since the blue, violet and green of copper, which may be rais- 
ed and weakened at pleasure, afford such a variety, that a person who 
can die silk, woollen, cotton or linen cloths therewith will gain an 
immense estate." It has been said by a Spanish patriot, that "good 
diers in silk and wool are few every where, and it should be consider- 
ed," in regard to this art, "we depend upon it as one of the most es-^ 
sential recommendations of our manufactured goods, and what pro- 
cures them the readiest sale, both at home and abroad; for it will turn 
to small account that the materials are good, and well wrought up, 
unless the mixture and colours be ansv/erable and grateful to the eye 
of ihe purchaser. 

The most important part of dying is the choice and applicatioa 
of morditnts; as upon them the permanency of almost every die de- 
pends. Mordants must be previously dissolved in some liquid, which 
has a weaker union v/ith the mordant than the cloth has; and the cloth 
must then be steeped in this solution, so as to saturate itself with the 
mordant, the most important and most generally used mordant is al~ 
limine; it is used in the state of common alum, in which it is combined 
with sulphuric acid, or in that state called acetate of alumine. Aluna 
to make a mordant is dissovedin water, and very frequently, a quanti- 
ty of tartrite of potash is dissolved with it. Into this solution the wool- 
len cloth is put and kept till it has absorbed as much alumine as neces- 
sary. It is then taken out, washed and dried. 

Acetike of Alumine, is prepared as a mordant by pouring acetate of 
lead into a solution of alum, (see page 30, acetate of alumine.} This 
mordant is employed for cotton and linen. It answers much better for 
these than alum; the stuff* is more easily saturated with alumine, and 
takes in consequence, a richer and more permanent colour. The white 
oxyde of tin has enabled the moderns greatly to surpass many bf the 

R 



J30 , THE ARTIST AxXD 

ancients, in the lineness of their colours; and even to equal thetannous 
Tyrian purple; and by means of its scarlet, the brightness of all col- 
ours is produced. It is the white oxyde of tin alone that is the real 
mordant. Tin is used as a mordant in three states: dissolved in nitro- 
muriatic acid, in acetous acid, and in a mixture of sulphuric and mu- 
riatic acids; but nitro-muriate of tin is the common mordant employed 
by diers. It is prepared by dissolving tin in diluted nitric acid, to which 
a certain proportion of common salt, or sal ammoniac is added. When 
the nitro-muriate of tin is to be used as a mordant, it is dissolved in 
a large quantity of water, and the cloth is dipped in the solution, and 
allowed to remain until sufficiently saturated. It is then taken out, 
w-ashed and dried. Tartar is usually dissolved in water, along with 
the nitro-muriate. 

Red Oxyde of Iron, is alsp used as a mordant in dying; it has a very 
strong affinity for ail kinds of cloth, of which the permanency of red 
iron spots, or iron moulds on linen and cotton is a sufficient proof. 
As a mordant it is used in two states; in that of sulphate of iron, or cop- 
peras, and that of acetate of iron. The first, or copperas, is common- 
ly used for icool. The copperas is dissolved in water, and the cloth 
dipped into it. It may be used, also for cotton, but in most cases ace- 
tate of iron is preferred, which is prepared by dissolving iron or its 
oxyde in vinegar, sour beer, or pyroligneous acid, and the longer it is 
kept the better. Tan is v^ery frequently employed as a mordant. An 
infusion of nutgalis, or of sumack, or any other substances contain- 
ing tan, is made in water; and the cloth is dipped in this infusion, and 
allowed to remain till it has absorbed a sufficient quantity. Tan is 
also employed along with other mordants, to produce a compound 
mordant. Oil is also used for the same purpose, in dying cotton and 
linen. The mordants with which it is most frequently combined, are 
alumine and oxyde of iron. Besides these mordants, there are seve- 
ral other substances frequently used as auxiliaries, either to facilitate 
the combination of the mordant with the cloth, or to alter tlie shade of 
colour; the chief of these are, tartar, acetate of lead, common salt, 
sal ammoniac, sulphur of copper, &c. Mordants not only render the 
die perfect, but also have considerable influence on the colour pro- 
duced. The same colouring matter produces very different dies, ac- 
cording as the mordant is changed. Suppose for instance, that the 
colouring matter is cochineal; if we use the aluminous mordant, the 
cloth will acquire a crimson colour; but the oxyde of iron produces 
with it, a black. In dying then, it is not only necessary to produce a 
mordant, and a colouring matter of such a nature, that when combin- 
ed together, they shall produce the wished for colour in perfection. 
But we must prcoure a mordant and a colouring matter, of such a na- 
ture, that when combined together, they should possess the wished for 
-colour; even a great variety of colours may be produced with a single 
die stuff, provided we change the mordant sufficiently. 

To determine the effects of various salts or taordants on colours: 
1. The'yiie of Madder. For a madder red on woollens, the best quan- 
tity of madder is one half, if the woollens that are to b^ died; the best 
proportion of salts to be used in five parts of alum and one of red tar- 
tar, for sixteen parts of the stuff. A variation in the proportions of the 
salts, wholly alters the colour that the madder naturally gives. If the 



tradesman's guide. 131 

alum is lessened, and the tartar increased, the dies prove a red cinna 
mon. If the alum be entirely omitted, the red wholly disappears' 
and a durable tawny cinnamon is produced. If woollens are boiled in 
weak pearlash and water, tlie greater part of the colour is destroyed. 
A solution of soap discharges a part of the colour, and leaves the re- 
maining more beautiful. Volatile alkalies heighten the red colour of 
the madder, but they make the die fugitive. 

2. The Die of Logwood. Volatile alkaline salts or acids incline 
this to purple; the vegetable and nitrous acids, render it pale; the vit- 
riolic and marine acids deepen it. 

3. Lime JVaier. In dying browns or blacks, especially browns, 
lime water is found to be a very good corrective, as also, an alterna- 
tive when the goods are not come to the shades required; but practice 
alone can shew its utility; it answers well for either woollens, silks, or 
cottons. 

4. To render colours holding. Brown or blues, or shades from 
them, require no preparation to make them receive the die, and hold it 
fast when they have received it. ilium and tartar, boiled togeth- 
er, when cold, form a mastic, within the pores of the substance, 
that serves to retain the die, and reflect the colour in a manner trans- 
parently. Almost all browns are deemed fast and holding colours, 
without any preparation, the dying materials containing in themselves 
a sufficient degree of astringent quality to retain their own colours. 
Many reds, are also, equally holding, but none more so than those 
made with madder on woollens prepared with alum and tartar. A 
very fast red is also made with brazil wood, by boiling the woollen in 
alum and tartar, and suffering the cloth to remain several days in a bag^ 
kept moist by the preparation liquor. The cause of the solidity of the 
colour from Brazil wood, died after this method, arises from the alum 
and tartar masticating itself within the pores of the wool in quite a 
solid state. 

There is not a drug used in the whole art of dying, but may be made a permanent die, by 
finding out a salt or solution of some metal, that, when once dissolved by acids, or by boiling 
water, will neither be affected by the air, nor be dissolved by moisture. Such are alum and 
tartar, the solution of tin, &c. But these salts and solutions do not answer with ail ingre- 
dients that are used in dying. 

To die Wool and Woollen Cloths of a Blue Colour. One part of 
indigo, in four parts concentrated sulphuric acid, dissolved; then add 
onej)art of dry carbonate of potash, and dilute with eight times it? 
weight of water. The cloth must be boiled for an hour in a solution, 
containing five parts of alum, and three of tartar, for every thirty- 
two parts of cloth, then throw it into a water bath, previously prepared, 
containing a greater or smaller proportion of diluted sulphate of indi- 
go, according to the shade which the cloth is intended to receive. 
Boil it in the bath until the colour desired is obtained. The only col- 
ouring matters employed in dying blue are indigo and woad. Indigo , 
has a very strong affinity for wool, silk, cotton and linen. Ever}' 
cloth, therefore, may be died with it without the assistance of any 
mordant whatever. The colour thus induced is very permanent. But 
indigo can only be applied to cloth in a state of solution, and the only 
solvent known is sulphuric acid. The sulphate of indigo is often used 
to die wool and silk blue, and is known by the name of Saxon blue. 

Tt is not the only solution of that pigment employed in dving. By 



132 THE ARTIST ANB 

far the most eomnion method is, to deprive the indigo of its blue col- 
our, and reduce it to green, and then to dissolve it in water by means 
©f alkalies. Two different methods are employed for this purpose. 
The first is, to mix the indigo in a solution of green oxyde of iron, and 
different metallic sulphurets. If, therefore, indigo lime, and green 
sulphate of iron, arc mixed together in water, the indigo gradually 
loses its blue colour, becomes green, and is dissolved. The second 
method is, to mix the indigo, iu water, v\'ith certain vegetable substan- 
ces, which readily undergo fermentation; the indigo is dissolved by 
means of quicklime or alkali, which is added to the solution. The 
first of these methods is usually follov/ed in dying cotton and linen; 
the second in dying si!k and vvoollen. In the dying of wool, woad 
and bran are commonly employed, as vegetable ferments, and lime as 
the solvent of the green base of the indigo; and by following the 
common process, indigo may be extracted from it. In the usual state 
of woad, when purchased by the dier, the indigo which it contains, is 
probably not far from the state of green pollen. Its quantity in woad 
is but small, and it is mixed with a great proportion of other vegetable 
matter. When the cloth is first taken out of the vat, it is of a green 
colour; but it soon becomes blue. It ought to be carefully washed, to 
carry off the uncombined particles. This solution of indigo is Uable to 
two inconveniences: 1st. It is apt sometimes, to run too fast, into 
the putrid fermentation; this may be knov/n by the putrid vapours, 
which it exhales, and by the disappearing of the green colour. In this 
state it would soon destroy the indigo altogether. The inconven- 
ience is remedied by adding more lime, which has the property of 
moderating the putrescent tendency. 2dly. Sometimes the fermenta- 
tion goes on too languidly. This defect is remedied by adding more 
bran or woad, in order to diminish the proportion of thick lime. 

To make Chemic Blue and Green. Chemic, for light blues and 
greens on silk, cotton, or woollen, and for cleaning and whitening cot- 
tons, is made as follows. One pound of the best oil of vitriol, pour- 
ed on, one ounce of the best indigo, well pounded and sifted; add to 
this, after it has been well stirred, a small lump of common pearlash, 
as big as a pea, or from that to double the quantity. When the fer- 
mentation which is produced, ceases, put it into a bottle tightly cork- 
ed, and it may be used the next day. Observe, if more than the quan- 
tity prescribed of pearlash should be used, it will deaden and sully the 
colour. Chemic for green as above for blue, is made by. only add- 
ing one-fourth more of the oil of vitriol. 

To make a solution of Tin in Aqua-Regia. Eight ounces filtered 
fiver water, and eight ounces double aqua-fortis; mix; add gradually 
half an ounce of sal ammoniac, dissolved, piece by piece, and two 
drachms saltpetre. Then take one ounce of refined block tin; put 
it into an iron pan, and set it over the fire; when melted, hold it four 
or five feet over the vessel, and drop it into water, so as to let it fall to 
pieces. Then put a small' piece of this granulated tin into the above 
aqua-regia, and when the last piece disappears, add more gradually, 
till the whole is mixed; mind and keep it firmly corked. "VMien fin- 
ished it will produce a most excellent yellow, though should it fail in 
that respect, it will not be the worse for use; keep it cool, as heat 
\vi\\ injure it, and even spoil it. 



tradesman's guide. 133^^ 

To make Muriate of Tin. Take eight ounces muriatic acid, and 
dissolve in it, by slow degress, half an ounce granulated tin; when 
this is done, pour off the clear liquid into a bottle, and weaken it if re- 
quired, with pure river water. [See page 42; Scarlet CoIour.~\ 

To determine the effect of various Waters on different Colours. 
Snow water contains a little muriate of lime, and some slight traces 
of nitrate of lime; rain water has the same salts in a larger quantity, 
and also carbonic acid; spring water most frequently contains carbon- 
ate of hme, muriate of lime, muriate of soda, or carbonate of soda. 
River water has the same substances, but in less abundance. Well 
water contains sulphate of lime, or nitrate of potash, besides the above 
mentioned salts. Should the v/ater contain a salt or a mineral acid, 
in tlie first instance no acid will be required to neutralize it; or in 
the second, an alkali. Thus waters of any quality may be saturated 
\)j their opposites, and rendered neutral. 

To discharge Colours. The diers generally put all coloured silks 
which are to be discharged, into a copper, in which half a pound or 
a pound of white soap is dissolved. They are then boiled off, and 
when the copper begins to be too full of colour, the silks are taken 
out and rinsed in warm water. In the interim a fresh solution of soap 
is to be added to the copper, and then -proceed as before till all the 
colours are discharged. For those colours which are wanted to be 
effectually discharged, such as greys, cinnamon, &c. when soap does 
not do, tartar must be used. For slate colours, greenish drabs, olive 
drab, &c. oil of vitriol, in warm water must be used; if other colours, 
roche alum must be boiled in the copper, then cooled down, and the 
silks entered and boiled off, recollecting to rinse them before they are 
again died. A small quantity of muriatic acid, diluted in warm water, 
must be used to discharge some fast colours; the goods must be af- 
terwards well rinsed in warm and cold water to prevent any injury to 
the stalk. 

To discharge Cinnamons, Greens, «^c. when died too fully, take 
some tartar pounded in a mortar, sift it into a bucket, then pour over 
it some boiling water. The silks, &c. m.ay then be run through the 
clearest of this liquor, which will discharge the colour, but if the die 
does not take on again evenly, more tartar may be added, and the 
goods run through as before. 

To Re-Die, or change the colour of Garments, ^c. depends upon 
the ingredients by which they have been died. Sometimes when 
these have been well cleansed, more die stuff must be added, Avhich 
will afford the colour intended, and sometimes the colour already on 
the cloth must be discharged and the articles re-died. 

Every colour in nature will die black, whether blue, yellow, brown, or red; and black will 
always die black again. All colours will take the same colour again, which they already 
possess; and blues can be made green or black; green may be made brown and brown green; 
and every colour on re-dying will take a darker hue than at first. Yellows, browns, and blues 
are not easily disengaged; maroons, reds, of some kinds, olives, &c. may be discharged. 

Olive Greys, Spc. are discharged by putting in two or three table 
spoonfuls, more or less, of oil of vitriol, then put in the garments, &c. 
and boil, and it will become white. If chemic green, either alum, 
pearlash, or soap, will discharge it off to the yellow; this yellow may 
be mostly boiled off with soap, if it has received a preparation for tak- 
ing the chemic blue. Muriatic acid used at a hard heat, Svill dischgare 



i34 THE ARTIST AND 

most colours. A black may be died maroon, claret, green, of * 
a dark brown, but green is the principal colour into which black is 
changed. 

To alum Silhs. Silks should be alumed when cold, for when they 
are alumed hot, they are deprived of a great part of their lustre. The 
alum liquor should always be strong for silks, as they take the die 
more readily afterwards. 

To die Silks Blue. Silk is died light blue, by a ferment of six parts, 
six of indigo, six of potash, and one of madder. For a dark blue, it 
must previously receive what is called a ground colour; a red die stuff, 
called archil, is used for this purpose. 

To die Cotton and Linen Blue. Take a solution of one part indi- 
go, one part green sulphate of iron, and tv/o parts quicklime. 

Yellow Dies. Oxyde of tin is sometimes used when very fine yellows 
are wanting. Tan is often employed as subsidiary to alumine, and in 
order to fix it more copiously op cotton and linen. Tartar is also used 
as an auxiliary, to brighten the colour; and muriate of soda, sulphate 
of hme and even the sulphate of iron, to render the shade deeper. 
The yellow die, by means of fustic is more permanent, but not so 
beautiful as that given by weld or quercitron. As it is permanent, 
and not much injured by acids, it is often used in dying compound 
colours, where a yellow is required. The mordant is alumine. When 
it is oxyde of iron, fustic dies a good permanent drab colour. Weld 
and quercitron bark yield nearly the same colour; but the bark yields 
colouring matter in greater abundance, and is cheaper than weld. The 
method of using each of these die stuffs is nearly the same. 

Yellow colouring matters have too weak an afnnity for cloth, to produce permanent colours 
without the use of mordants. Cloth, therefore, before it is died yellow, is always prepared 
by soaking it in alumine. 

To die Woollens Yelloiu. Let them be boiled for an hour or more^ 
with one-sixth of its weight of alum, dissolved in a sufficient quantity 
of water as a mordant. Then plunge it without rinsing, into a bath 
of warm water, containing as much quercitron bark as equals the 
weight of the alum employed as a mordant. The cloth is to be 
turned through the boiling liquid, till it has acquired the intend- 
ed colour. Then a quantity of clean powdered chalk, equal to the 
hundredth part of the weight of the cloth, is to be stirred in, and the 
operation of dying continued for eight or ten minutes longer. This 
method produces a pretty deep and lively yellow. For a very bright 
orange, or golden yellow, it is necessary to use the oxyde of tin as a 
mordant. For producing bright golden yellows, some alum must be 
used along with the tin. To give tlie yellow a dehcate green shade, 
tartar must be added in different proportions, according to the shade. 

To die Silks Yellow. They may be died different shades of yel- 
low, either by weld or quercitron bark, but the last is the cheapest. 
The proportion is from one to two parts of bark, to twelve parts of 
silk, according to the shade. Tie the bark up in a bag, and put it in- 
to the dying vessel while the water is cold. When it acquires the heat 
of about 100° the silk having been previously alumed, should be dip- 
ped in, and continued, till it assumes the wished for colour. When 
the shade is required to be deep, a little chalk, or pearlash should be 
added towards the end of the operation. 



TRADESMAN'S GUIDE. 135 

To die Linens and Cottons Yellow, The mordant should be ace- 
tate of akimine, prepared by dissolving one part of acetate of lead, and 
three parts of alum, in a sufficient quantity of water. Heat the solu- 
tion to the temperature of 100*^, soak the cloth in it for two hours; then 
wring out and dry it. This may be again repeated, and if the shade 
of yellow is required to be very l3right and durable, the alternate wet- 
ting with limestone and soaking in the mordant may be repeated three 
or four times. 

The drying bath is prepared by putting twelve or eighteen parts of 
quercitron bark, (according to the depth of the shade required) tied up 
in a bag, into a sufficient quantity of cold water. Into tliis bath the 
cloth is to be put, and turned in it for an hour, while its temperature 
is gradually raised to about 120'='. It is then to be brought to a boil- 
ing heat, and the cloth allowed to remain in it for only a few minutes. 
If kept long at a boihng heatj the yellow acquires a shade of brown. 

To fix a fine Mineral Colour on Wool, Silk, Cotton, c)-c. Mix one 
lb. sulphur, two lbs. white oxyde of arsenic, and five parts pearlash; 
and melt in a crucible at a little short of red heat. The result is a yel- 
low mass, to be dissolved in hot water, and the liquor filtrated, to sep- 
arate from a sediment formed chiefly of metallic arsenic, in shining 
plates, and in a small part of a chocolate coloured matter, which ap- 
pears to be a sub-sulphuret of arsenic. Dilute the filtrated liquor, 
then add v/eak sulphuric acid, which produces a flacculent precipitate 
of a most briUiant yellow colour. This precipitate, v\*ashed upon a 
cloth filter, dissolves with the utmost ease in liquid ammonia, giving 
a yellow solution, which colour is to be removed by an excess of the 
same alkali. 

To prepare the Sidphuret of Arsenic. This produces a very bril- 
liant and permanent yellow. Dip into a solution of this more or less 
diluted, according to the depth of tint required, wool, silk, cotton or 
linen. All metallic utensils must be carefully avoided. When the 
stuffs come out of this bath, they are colourless, but they insensibly 
take on a yellow hue as the ammonia evaporates. They are to be 
exposed as equally as possible to a current of open air; and when the 
colour is well come out, and no longer heightens, they are to be wash- 
ed and dried. Wool should be fulled in the ammoniacal solution, and 
should remain in it, until it is thoroughly soaked; then very slightly 
and uniformly pressed, or else merely set to drain of itself. Silk, cot- 
ton, hemp, and flax, are only to be dipped in the dying hquid, which 
they easily take. They must be then well pressed. The sulphuret 
arsenic will give every imaginable tint to stuffs, from the deep golden 
yellow, which has the invariable advantage of never fadiuii, of lasting 
even longer than the stuffs themselves, and of resisting all re-agents, 
except alkalies. Hence it is peculiarly fitted for costly tapestry, vel- 
vets and other articles of furniture which are not in danger of being 
washed with alkahes or soap; and to which the durability of colour is 
a most important object. It may also be used with advantage in pa- 
per staining. 

To die Woollens Red, Crimson and Scarlet. Coarse woollen stuffs 
are died red with madder, or archil; but fime cloth is almost exclu- 
sively died with cochineal, though the colour it receives from kermes 
is more durable. Brazil wood is scarcely tised, excepting as an aux- 



.136 SHE ARTIST AN1> 

iliary, because ihe colour which it imparts to the avooI is not ipernia-" 
neiit. Wool is died crimson, by first impregnating it with alumine, 
by means of an alum bath, and then boiling in a decoction of cochi- 
neal, till it has acquired the wished for colour. The crimson will be 
finer if the tin mordant is substituted for alum; indeed, it is usual with 
diers to add a little nitro-muriate of tin, when they want fine crimsons: 
the addition of archil and potash to the cochineal both render the 
crimson darker, and gives it the more bloom. But the bloom very 
soon vanishes. For the paler crimsons, only one half of the cochi- 
neal is withdrawn, and madder substituted in its place. Wool may 
be died scarlet, by first boiling it in a solution of murio-sulphate of 
lin, then dying it pale yellow with quercitron bark, and afterwards 
crimson with cochineal, for scarlet is a compound colour, consisting of 
crimson mixed with a little yellow. 

To carry the Colour into the body of the Cloth. Make the moist- 
ened cloth pass through between rollers placed within and at the bot- 
tom of the die vat, so that the web, passing from one windlass thro' 
the die vat, and being strongly compressed by the roller's in its pas- 
sage to another windlass, all the remaining water is driven out, and 
is replaced by the colouring liquid, so as to receive colour to its 
very centre. The winding should be continued backwards and for- 
wards from one windlass to the other, and tiu'ough the rolling press, 
till the die is of sufficient intensity. 

To die Silks Red, Crimson, <^c. Silk is usually died red with 
cochineal, or carthamus, and sometimes' with Brazil wood. Kermes 
does not answer for silk. P»Iadder is scarcely ever used for that pur- 
pose, because it does not yield a colour bright enough. Archil is em- 
ployed to give silk a bloom; but it is scarcely ever used by itself, un- 
less when the colour wanted is lilac. Silk may be died crimson by 
steeping it in a solution of alum, and then dying it in the usual way^ 
in a cochineal bath. The colours known by the name of poppy, cher- 
ry, rose, and flesh colour are given to silks by means of carthamus. 
The process consists merely in keeping the silk, as long as it extracts 
any colour in an alkaline solution of carthamus, into which as much 
lemon juice as gives it a fine cherry red colour, has been poured. 
Silk cannot be died a full scarlet; but a colour approaching to scarlet 
may be given to it, by first impregnating the stuff* with murio-sulphate 
of tin, and afterwards dying it in a bath, composed of four parts of 
cochineal, and four parts of quercitron bark. To give the colour 
more body, both the mordant and the die may be repeated. A colour 
approaching scarlet may be given to silk, by first dying it in crimson, 
then dying it with carthamus; and lastly, yellow without heat. 

To die Linens and Cottons Red, <^c. Cotton and linen are died 
red with madder. The process was borrowed from the east; hence 
the colour is often called Adrianople, or Turkey red. The cloth is 
first impregnated with oil, then with galls, and lastly with alum. It is 
then boiled for an hour in a decoction of madder, which is commonly 
mixed with a quantity of blood. After the cloth is died, it is plunged 
into a soda lie, in order to heighten the colour. The red given by 
this process is very permanent, and when properly conducted, it is ex- 
ceedingly beautiful. The whole difficulty consists in the apphcation 
of the mordant, which is by far the most complicated in the whole art 



tkade2:ia.n's guide. 137 

\>i dying. Cotton may be died scarlet, by moans of muiio-sulphaLe 
f)f tin, cochineal, and quercitron bark, used as for silk, but the colour 
is too fading to be of any value. 

Black Die. The substances employed to give a black colour to 
cloth, are red oxyde of iron, and tan. These tv.o substances have a 
stroao; affinity for each other, and when combined, assume a deep 
black colour, not liable to be destroyed by the action of air or light. 
Lo<7\voodis usually employed as an auxiliary, because it communicates 
lustre, and adds considerably to the fulness of the black. The decoc- 
tion is at first a fine red, bordering en violet; but if left to itself, it 
gradually assumes a black colour. Acids give it a deep red colour, 
alkahes, a deep violet, inclining to brown; sulphate of iron renders it 
as black as ink, and occasions a precipitate of the same colour. Cloth 
before it receives a black colour, is usually died blue; this renders 
the colour much fuller and fiiier than it would otherv.dse be. If the 
cloth is coarse, the blue die may be too expensive; in that case, a 
brown colour is given, by means of walnut peels. 

To die WGolhr„s Black. Ysool is died black by the follov/ing 
process. It is boiled for two hours in a decoction of nutgal's, and af- 
terwards kept, for two hours more, in a bath, composed of logwood 
and sulphate of iron; kept during the v/hole time, at a scalding heat, 
but not boiling. During the operation, it must be frequently exposed 
to the air; because the green oxyde of iron, of which the sulphate is 
composed, must be converted into red oxyde, by absorbing oxygen, 
before the cloth can acquire a proper colour. The common propor- 
tions, are five parts galls, five sulphate of iron, and thirty of logv^ood 
for every hundred of cloth. A little acetate of copper is commonly 
added to the sulphate of iron, because it is thought to improve the col- 
our. 

To die Silks Black. Silk is died nearly in the same manner. It 
is capable of combining v/ith a great deal of tan; the quantity is varied 
at the pleasure of the artist, by allowing the silk to remain a longer or 
a shorter time in the decoction. 

To die Cottons and Linens Black. The cloth previously died blue, 
is steeped for tvv-enty-four hours in a decoction of nutgalls. A bath is 
prepared, containing acetate of iron, formed by saturating acetous 
acid with brown oxyde of iron; into this bath the cloth is put, in small 
quantities at a time, wrought v> ith the hand for a quarter of an hour; 
then wrung out and aired again; wrought in a fi-esh quantity of the 
bath, and afterv.ards aired. These alternate processes are repeated 
till the colour wanted is given; a decoction of alder bark is usually 
mixed with the hquor containing the nutgalls. 

To die JVool, 4-c. Broicn. Brown or fav/n colour, though in fact, 
a compound, is usually ranked among the s-mple colours, because it 
is applied to cloth ])y a single process. Various substances are used 
for brown dies. Walnut peels, or the green covering of the walnut, 
when first separated, are white internally, but soon assume a brown, 
or even a black colour, on exposure to the air. They readily yield 
their colouring matter to water. They are usually kept in large casks, 
covered with water, for above a year before they are used. To die 
wool brown with them, nothing more is necessary, than to steep the 
cloth in a decoction of them, till it has acquired the wished for colour. 

S 



138 THE ARTIST A^B 

The depth of the shade is proportioned to the strength of the decoc- 
tion. The root of the walnut ixee contains the game colouring mat- 
ter, but in a smaller quantity. The bark of the birch also, and many 
other trees, may be used for the same purpose. 

To die Compound Colours. Compound colours are produced by 
Kfiixing together two simple ones; or which is the same thing by dy- 
ing cloth first of the simple colour, and then by another. These col- 
ours vary to infinity, according to the proportions of the ingredients 
employed. From blue, red and yellow, red olives, and greenish greys 
are made. 

From blue, red and brown, olives are made from the lightest to the 
darkest shades; and by giving a greater shade of red, the slated and 
lavender greys are made. 

From blue, red and black, greys of all shades are made, such as 
sage, pigeon, slate and lead greys. 

From yellow, blue and brown, are made olives of all kinds. 

From brown, blue and black, are produced hroicn olives, and their 
shades. 

From red, yellow and brown, are derived the orange, gold colour, 
dead carnations, cinnamon, fawn and tobacco, by using two or three 
of the colours required. 

From yellow, red and black, h^oivns of every shade are made. 

From blue and yellow, greens of all shades. 

From red and blue, purples of all kinds are formed. 

To die different shades of Green. Wool, silk and linen are usually 
died green, by giving them first a blue colour; and afterwards dying 
them yellow; when the yellow is first given, several inconveniences 
follow: the yellow partly separates again in the blue vat, and com- 
municates a green colour to it, then rendering it useless for evey other 
purpose, except dying green. Any of the usual processes for dying 
blue and yellow may be followed, taking care to proportion the depth 
esf the shades to that of the green required. When sulphate of indigo 
is employed, it is usual to mix all the ingredients together, and to die 
the cloth at once; this produces what is known by the name of Saxon, 
or English green. 

To die Violet, Purple, and Lilac. Wool is generally first died 
blue, and afterwards scarlet, in the usual manner. By means of 
cochineal mixed with sulphate of indigo, the process may be perform- 
ed at once. 

Silk is first died crimson by means of cochineal, and then dipped 
Into the indigo vat. Cotton and linen are first died blue, and then 
dipped in a decoction of logwood, but a more permanent colour is 
given by means of oxyde of iron. 

. To die Olive, Orange, and Cinnamon. When blue is combined 
with red and yellow on cloth, the resulting colour is olive. Wool may be 
died orange, by first dying it scarlet, and thenyellov/. When it is died 
first with madder, the result is a cinnamon colour. Silk is died orange 
by means of carthamus; a cinnamon colour by logwood, Brazil wood, 
and fustic, mixed together. Cotton and linen receive a cinnamon 
colour by means of weld and madder; and an oliv<t colour by being 
passed through a blue, yellow, and then a madder bath. 

Te die Grey, Drah, and dark Brown. If cloth is previously com- 



tradesman's guide. 139 

bined with brouii oxyde of iron, and afterwards died yellow with que;-- 
citron bark, the result will be a drab of different shades, according t9 
the proportion of mordant employed. When the proportion is small, 
the colour inclines to olive, or yellow; on the contrary, the drab may be 
deepened, or saddened as the diers term it, by mixing a little sumack 
with the bark. 

To die Olives, Bottle Greens, Purples, Browns, Cinnamons, or 
Snuffs. Take common iron liqaor, or alum dissolved in it, a quanti- 
ty of each according to the shade wanted, made into a paste or liquid 
by adding flour, gum, glue, linseed, or one or more of them. Then put 
the composition into a tub connected with a machine used for such 
purposes; take them from the machine, and hang them up in a very 
cool room: where they should remain until dry. Take cow's manure, 
put it into a large copper of hot water, and mix well together; through 
which pass the cloth, until thoroughly softened. After this process, 
cleanse the goods; then take a liquor made of madder, logwood, 
sumach, fustic, Brazil wood, quercitron bark, peach, or other woods, 
to produce the colour wanted, or more of them; and if necessary dilute 
this liquor with water, according to the shade or fulness of the colour 
wanted to be died. Then work the goods through this liquor; after 
which pass them through cold or warm water, according to colour, 
the proper application of which is well known to di^rs, adding a little 
alum, copperas, or Roman vitriol, or tv>o or more of them first dis- 
solved in water. Then wash them off in warm water, and dry them. 
But if the colour is not sufficiently full, repeat the same operation till 
it is brought to the col©ur required. 

To die a Black upon Cotton, Linen, and mixed Goods, is effected by 
tar and iron liquor of the best quality, adding to each gallon of the 
mixture, a pound of fine flour. Some take common iron liquor, and 
add three quarters of fine flour, and by boiling, bring it to the consis- 
tence of a thin paste, or instead of flour, add glue or hnseed, or gum, 
or all of them mixed together, and brought to a proper thickness. The 
rest of the process is conducted in a similar manner to the last. 

I'o die Crimson, Red, Orange, or Yellow. Take red liquor, such 
as is generally made from alum, and dilute it with water according to 
the strength or shade of colour wanted to die, bringing it to the con- 
sistency of a paste or liquid, as before described; then pass the cloth 
through the m.achine, which, being dried in a cool room, pass it through 
the operation as described in the article on olives, bottle greens, &c. 
then take a quantity of liquor made of cochineal, madder, peach wood, 
Brazil, logwood, woad, fustic, sumach, or any two or more of them, 
proportioned in strength, to the shade or colour wanted to die, and 
work the goods through this liquor, till they are brought to the shade 
of colour required; then wash them in cold or warm water and dry them- 

To die Cotton, Wool, and Silk with Prussian blue. Imm.erse the 
cotton in a large tub of water slightly acidulated and charged with Prus- 
siate of potash. These sorts of stuffs died in Prussian blue, and then 
in olive transformed into green, are particularly sought after in trade. 
By processes analogous to those employed for common stuffs, the in- 
ventor has obtained the same shades and colours, on samples of silk, 
and for many years he has succeeded in fixing Prussian blue, on wool; 
and in producing on cloth the same shades, as on cotton and silk. 



140 THE ARTIST AXi> 

To prcclpiiaie Aceiales of Lead and Copper on TVocI, Sillc, and 
Cotton. Soap the stuff to be died, in a solution of acetate, or rather, 
sub-acetnte of lead, wring it when taken out of the bath, dry in the 
shada: then v>-ash it and immerse it in water charged v/ith sulphuret- 
ted hydrogen gas. This process produces in a few minutes, rich and 
well laid shades, which vary from the clear vigone colour, to the deep 
brown, according to the force of the mordant, and the number of the 
immersions of the stuifs in the two bathing vessels. From the order 
of affinities, it is the wool v*-hich takes colour the best, afterwards the 
silk, then the cotton, and lastly the thread which appears little apt to 
combine with the mordant. The difierent colours above indicated re- 
sist the air v/ell, likewise feeble acids, alkalies, and boiling soap, which 
modify their shades in an imperceptible manner, and these shades are 
so striking, that it will appear difficult to obtain them in any other v/ay. 

This new kind of die is very economical; the sulphuretted hydrogen gas is obtained fi-om a 
mixture of two parts of iron filings and one of brhiistcne, melted in a pot; the brimstone is 
bruised, introduced into a matrass, and the gas is removed by sulphuric acid, extended in wa- 
ter to a mild heat. The gas absorbs abundantly in cold water. 

To die Cotton Cloth Black. Take a quantity of Molacca nuts, and 
boil them in v/ater, in close earthen vessels, with the leaves of the tree. 
During the boiling, a v.hilish substance, formed from the mucilage 
and oil of the nuts, vdll rise to the surface; this must be taken off and 
preserved. The cloth intended to be black must be printed with this 
scum, and then died, after v/hich, let it be passed through limewater, 
when the painted figures will be changed to a full and permanent 
black. 

To die Wool a permanent Blue colour. Take four ounces of the 
best indigo, reduce it to a fine powder and add twelve pounds of wool, 
in the grease; pet the whole into a copper large enough to contain all 
the wool to be died. As soon as the requisite colour is obtained, let 
the wool be well washed and dried. The liquor remaining, may be 
again used, to produce lighter blues. The colour will be very beauti- 
ful, and permanent as the ffiiest blue produced by vroad; and the wook 
by this method will lose less in weight, than if it had been previously 
scoured. 

To produce the Swiss deep and pale red topical JSIordanls. When 
the cloth has been tl-eed by steeping and boiling in soap and water, 
from the paste used by the weaver, and any other impurities it may 
have acquired, immerse it thoroughly, or as it is called, tramp or 
pad it in a solution of any alkali, and oil or grease, forming an imper- 
fect soap, or boil in a perfect soap dissolved in water, or in a solution 
of soda and gallipoli oil, in the proportion of one gallon of oil to twen- 
ty gallons of soda lees, at the strength of four degrees and a half; 
then dry the cloth in the stove, and repeat the process several times, 
which may be varied at pleasure, according to the lustre and durabili- 
ty of the colour wanted, stove drying the cloth between every immer- 
sion. To the above solutions a little sheep's manure for the first three 
immersions; after the cloth has been imm.ersed in these liquors, steep 
it in a quantity of water, for twelve hours, at llO*^, Fahrenheit; the 
cloth being again stove dried is immersed in a solution of alkali and 
oil, or grease, or boiled in perfect soap dissolved; which process must 
be repeated, according to the brilliancy of the colours wanted; stone 



tradesman's guibe. 141 

drying as before between every immersion; tliese are called the ivldle 
liquors. Steep the cloth for twelve hours, at 125'=' Fahrenheit, which 
forms what is called the white steep. The cloth being now thorough- 
ly washed in cold water, and dried, is ready to receive, first, tbr^ pink 
mordant, composed as follows: equal quantities by measurement of a 
decoction of galls, at the strength of four to six, and a solution of al- 
um at one half degree, the alum being previously saturated with whiten- 
ing, or any other alkali, in the proportion of one ounce to the pound 
weight of alum; mix them together, and raise the temperature to 140^, 
of Fahrenheit, or as hot as can be handled. By immersion, as former- 
ly mentioned in this mixture, the cloth when died and cleared, exhibits 
a beautiful pink, equal, if not superior to that produced by cochineal. 
To die Silks and Satins Brown, in the small wmj. Fill the copper 
with river water; when it gently boils, put in a quarter of a pound of 
chipped fustic, two ounces of madder, one ounce of sumach, and half 
an ounce of camwood, but if it is not required to be so red, the cam- 
wood may be omitted. These should boil at least, from half an hour 
to two hours, that the ingredients may be well incorporated. The cop- 
per must then be cooled down by pouring in cold water; the goods 
may then be put in and simmered gently from half to an hour. 

If this colour should appear to want darkening-, it may be done by taking out the goodsj, 
and adding a small quantity of old black liquor; a. small piece of green copperas may be used- 
rinse in two or three waters, and hang up to dry. 

To die Silk Fawn Colour Drabs. Boil one ounce fustic, half an 
ounce of alder bark, and two drachms of archil From one to four 
drachms of the best madder must be added to a very small quantity of 
old black liquor, if it be required darker. 

To die a Silk Shaiol Scarlet. Dissolve two ounces of white soap 
in boiling water, handle the shawl through the hquor, rubbing such 
places with the hands as may appear dirty. A second or third liquor 
may be used, if required; after which rinse out the shawl in warm wa- 
ter. Then take half an ounce of the best Spanish arnotto, dissolve it 
in hot water; pour the solution into a pan of warm water, handle the 
shawl in it a quarter of an hour, then rinse it in clean water. In the 
meanwhile dissolve apiece of alum, of the size of ahorse bean in warm 
water, let the shawl remain in this half an hour, then rinse it in clean 
water. Now boil a quarter of an ounce of the best cochineal for 
twenty minutes, dip it out of the copper into a pari, let the shawl re- 
main in this from twenty minutes to half an hour, when it will become 
a blood red: then take it out and add to the liquor in the pan, a quart 
more out of the copper, if there is as much remaining, and about half 
a small wine glass full of the solution of tin; when cold, rinse it out 
slightly in cold water. 

To die a Silk Shawl Crimson. Take about a tablespoonful of cud- 
bear, put it into a small pan, pour boiling water upon it, stir and let it 
stand a few minutes, then put in the silk, and turn it over a short time, 
and when the colour is full enough, take it out; but if it should require 
more violet or crimson, add a spoonful or two of purple archil to some 
warm water, and dry it within doors. To finish, it must be calender-. 
cd, and then pressed. 

To die thick Silks, Satins, Silk Stockings, (^c. Flesh Colour. 
Wash the stockings clean in soap and water, and rinse in hot water; 



142 XHJ& ARTIST AJ^D 

if they should not appear perfectly clear, cut half an ounce of wliite 
soap into slices, put it into a sauce pan half full of boiling water; when 
it is dissolved, cool the water in the pan, then put in the stockings, 
and simmer twenty minutes, when they should be rinsed in hot water; 
in the interim pour three table spoonfuls of purple archil into a wash 
basin half full of hot water; die the stockings in this liquor, and when 
nearly of the shade of half violet or lilac, slightly rinse them in cold 
water; when dry, hang them up in a close room, in which sulphur is 
burnt; when they are evenly bleached to the shade required, finish by 
rubbing tlie riglit side with a flannel. Some prefer calendering them 
afterwards. Satins and silks are done in the same way. 

To die Silk Stockings Black. These are died hke other silks, ex- 
cepting they must be steeped a day or two in black liquor, before 
they are put into the black silk die. At first they will look like an 
iron grey, but to finish and black them, they must be put on wooden 
legs, laid on a table and rubbed with the oily rubber or flannel, upon 
which is oil of olives. For each pair it will require half a tablespoon- 
full of oil, and half an hour's rubbing, to finish them well. 

To die Strmv and Chip Bonnets Black. Chip hats are stained black 
in various ways. 1st. By being boiled in strong logvv'ood liquor three 
or four hours; they must be often taken out to cool in the air, and oc- 
casionally a small quantity of copperas must be added. The bon- 
nets may be kept in the vessel containing the liquor one night, and in 
the morning dried in the air, and brushed with a soft brush. Lastly, a 
sponge is dipped in oil, and squeezed almost to dryness; with this rub 
them all over. Some boil them in logwood, and instead of copperas, 
use steel filings steeped in vinegar; when they are finished as above. 

To die Black Cloth Green. Clean the cloth well with bullock's gall 
and water; rinse in warm water; make a copper full of river water boil- 
ing hot, and take from one to one pound and a half o^fustic; add to the 
water, and boil tv/enty minutes; put in a lump of alum of the size of a 
walnut; when dissolved, put in the article to be died, and boil twenty 
minutes; then take it out, and add a small wine glass three parts full 
of chemic blue, and boil again from half to an hour, w^hen the cloth 
will become a beautiful green; then wash out and dry. 

CHAPTER XXV. 

ARTIST AND MECHANIC. 

It is well understood that artificers, or artisans, or mechanics, are 
those who carry on any mechanical trade; that they are very nume- 
rous in all great trading states and empires; still, perhaps, their impor- 
tance in society is not generally considered by those, w^ho move (in 
what is said to be) a more exalted sphere of life; or more likely, by 
those who flatter themselves that they have been cast in finer moulds. 
It is not expected, that this essay will be very gratifying to the taste 
of those gentlemen, who measure their consequence either by their 
cash or garb; but we hope it will contribute in some measure to pro- 
duce a better feeling, in regard to those very useful citizens, the 
mechanics, and lead all to examine, if they are not alloyed with more 
human vanity than ordinarily becomes them. We have not been un- 
raindfal of the usefulness of the mechanic in former chapters; and we 



tradesman's guise. 143 

ugaiii repeat, it surpasses our wisdom to answer, why they are not en- 
titled to as much respectabihty as any class of our citizens^ As things 
are constituted at present among the trading countries of the world,those 
which subsist upon their natural productions, or merely by bartering 
or exchanging such commodities, for those of other countries, have 
never distinguished themselves as a trading people. The Indians in 
North America, as well as the Negroes in Africa, are plain instances 
of the fact. If the Chinese were deprived of their useful artificers, (or 
if you please, manufacturers, for, they may as reasonably be called 
the one as the other, though custom among us has made a distinction,) 
they would very probably degenerate into the like savage dispositions 
with the wildest Africans, or American Indians. And this we pre- 
sume, also, might be the case with the citizens of the 'United States. 
It is the arts which keep the mass of people in useful action, and which 
keep their minds also on useful invention, beneficial to the whole 
community; consequently, this is the grand preservative against that 
barbarism, brutahty and a slothfulness in trade, which ever attend an in- 
dolent arid inactive stupidity. The due cultivation of practical man- 
ual arts in a nation, has a greater tendency to polish, and humanize 
mankind, than mere speculative science, however refined and sub- 
lime it may be; and these arts are not only the most naturally adapt- 
ed to the bulk of the people, but by giving real existence to their 
ideas, by their practical inventions, improve their minds more sensibly 
and feelingly, than any ideal contemplation could do, which may have 
no other being, but in the mind of the speculator. Moreover, it is ob- 
servable, that those who are fruitful in useful inventions and discoveries, 
in the practical mechanical arts, are men, not only of the greatest util- 
ity, but possess an understanding, which should be most highly esti- 
mated. Whether this may be attributed to the constant exercise of 
their intellectual faculties in those things which they see and feel, may 
deserve the consideration of those who contemplate on the most natu- 
ral way of improving the mind. 

The delicate mechanism of a watch, by those great artists, a Gra- 
ham, or an Ellicot, demonstrate the utility of such artisans to a trading 
country, as their workmanship is admired amongst all the civilized 
world. It is the same by other artificers who excel in their peculiai* 
branch. This not only brings credit and honour, but treasures into 
a nation, in proportion as they are stocked with such celebrated me- 
chanics or artificers. An English writer says, "nothing is more obvi- 
ous than that the commerce and navigation of the nation, principally 
depends on the daily improvement made by our artificers, in the infin- 
ite and amazing variety in our mechanic and manufactural arts; wh^-e- 
fore, artists, who strike out new inventions, or who improve the old 
mechanics and manufactures, arc desening of some regard and en- 
couragement, more than they acquire to themselves, by dint of their 
own peculiar profession only." Experience has manifested the cx- 
ti-aordinary effe-t of thoso sma-.l rewards given in Scotland and Ire- 
land, for the improvement of iheir manufact'jres; though it is not al- 
ways the case, that premiums operate so povNerfulIy, as the motive of 
emulation; for that credit and reputation, which attends a man's ex- 
celling in his employment, has, sometimes, a far greater influence up- 
on the industrious and ingenious mind, than pecuniarv' rewards only. 



114 THE AnxlSt ANB 

Yet these are not to be neglected in trading nations; as it is raosf 
commonly the case, that new inventions or improvements, made by 
one for the benefit of trade, are soon enjoyed equally by all; the in- 
ventors very rarely, being able to preserve the benefit to themselves, 
scarce ever long enough to recompense for the time and expense they 
have genei'ally been obliged to bestow upon them. 

Was it fashionable once for persons of distinctions to devote a pro- 
portion of their rural retirements, to practical or experimental philos- 
ophy, it might not only prove a salubrious bodily exercise to them,, 
but a great benefit and advantage to our artificers in general, and con- 
sequently to the general trade and trafiic of the country. 

An European author v/rites, "the mechanic inventions are improv- 
ed by others, besides the common artificers themselves. This will 
undeniably appear," says he, " if vre v/ill be convinced by instances; 
for it is e\4dent diverse soi-ts of manufactures have been given us, by 
men who were not bred up in trades that resembled those which they 
discovered. I shall mention three, that of printing, powder and bovv- 
die. The admirable art of composing letters, so far from being 
started by a man of learning, was the device of a soldier; and powder, 
to make recompense, was invented by a monk, v/hose course of life 
was most averse from handhng the materials of v/ar. The ancient 
Tyrian purple was brought to light by a fisher; and if ever it can be 
recovered, it is likely to be done by some such accident." The scar- 
let of the moderns is a very beautiful colour, and it was the production 
of a chemist and not of a dier. The warmth and vigour which attend 
new discoveries, is seldom confined to its own sphere; but is general- 
ly extended to the ornament of its neighbour. The ordinary method 
in which this happens, is the introduction of new arts. It is true, in- 
deed, the increase of tradesmen, is an injury to others that are bred 
lip in particular trades, if they are enabled to supply all demands in 
their various branches; but there can never be too great a surplus of 
trades. That country is still the ricliest, and most powerful, which 
produces and employs the greatest number of artificers and manu- 
facturers. 

The hands of men employed, are true riches; the saving 'of these 
hands by invention of art^, and applying them to other works, will in- 
crease those riches. Where this is done, there will never a sufncient 
subject for profit be wanting; for, if there be not vent for their produc- 
tions at home, we shall have it abroad. Thus, in those districts where 
commerce and manufactures do not flourish to any degree, we fimd ex- 
change in fdvourof those places, Vi^here they are more extended; hence 
vre learn the balance of trade, particularly in manufactures, is against 
us, and in favour of Great Britain; but we need not cross the Atlantic 
to maintain our position, for the argument is applicable to the middle 
and southern in favour of the New England states; to those who ne- 
gotiate in bills of exchange, this subject cannot be new, as well as a 
fact too plain not to have been evident. Where the ways of life are 
few, the fountains of profit will be possessed by few; whence it is man- 
ifest that poverty among a people is caused by a small number, not 
by having a multitude engaged in a variety of trades. An English 
writer asserts, that, by the increase of artificers and manufacturers, 
■ill things will be dearer, because more must be maintained; for the 



TRADES.^iA^-S GUIDE. 143 

high rate of things is an argument of the flourishirig, and the cheap- 
ness, of the scarcity of money, and ill-peopHng of all countries. The 
first is a sign of many inhabitants, which is true greatness, the sec- 
ond is only a fit subject for poets lo describe, and to compare to their 
golden age; for, where all things are without price or value, they will 
be without arts, or empire, or strength." From the sentiments of this 
zealous promoter of the useful arts, for the benefit of commerce, it is 
evident that he makes the prosperity of a trading nation to consist in 
the multiplying of the number of new trades; that is to say, in multi- 
plying the different species of mechanics, artificers and manufacturers; 
it is for want of this, that all the old Vvays of gain become overstock- 
ed, and then people complain for want of trade, when the true cause 
is owing to the want of art, or to the want of the invention of a num- 
ber of new trades, and new arts, in proportion to the increase of pop- 
ulation, and in proportion as other rival states strike into the like trades 
and arts, with similar advantages. Finally, if our labourers are as 
diligent as our lawgivers, we shall prove the most laborious, if not the 
most wealthy nation under heaven. But the true method of increasing 
industry, and improvement, and v/ealth,vand respectability, is that 
which was recommended by the Royal Society of London, "by works 
and endeavours, and not be the prescriptions ofivords, or paper com- 
inands," 

CHAPTER XXV. 

THE ART OF CALICO PRINTING. 

This art consists in dying cloth with certain colours and figures up- 
on a ground of a different hue: the colours, when they will not take 
hold of the cloth readily, being fixed to them by means of mordants, as 
a preparation of alum made by dissolving three pounds alum and one 
pound of acetate of lead, in eight pounds' of warm water. There are 
added at the same time, tv/o ounces of potash, and two ounces of 
chalk. Acetate of iron, is also a mordant in frequent use; but the 
simple mixture of alum and acetate of lead, is found to answer best 
as a mordant. The mordants are applied to the cloth, either with a 
pencil, or by means of blocks, on which the pattern, according t6 
which the cotton is to be printed is applied, is cut. As they are ap- 
pHed to only particular parts of the cloth, care must be taken that 
none of them spread to the part of the cloth which is to be left white, 
and that they do not interfere with another, when several are applied; 
it is necessary, therefore, that the mordants should be of such a de- 
gree of consistence, that they will not spread beyond those parts of 
the cloth, on which they are apphed. This is done by thickening theni 
with flour or starch, when they are to be applied Ijy the block, and 
with gum arable when they are to be put on with, the pencil. The 
thickening should never be greater than is sufficient to prevent the 
spreading of the mordants; when earned too far, the cotton is apt not 
to be sufficiently saturated ^vith the mordants, and of course the die 
takes but imperfectly. In order that the parts of the cloth impregnat- 
ed with mordants may be distinguished by their colour, it is usual to 
tinge them with some colouring matter. A decoction of Brazil wood 
is generally used for this purpose. After the mordants have been ap- 

T 



146 THE ARTIST AX1> 

plied, the clotb must be completely dried. It is proper for this pur- 
pose to employ heat, which will contribute towards the separation of 
the acetous acid from its base, and towards its evaporation; by which 
means the mordant will combine in a greater proportion, and more in- 
timately with the cloth. When the cloth is sufficiently dried, it is to 
be washed with warm water and cowdung, till the flour or gum em- 
ployed to thicken the mordants v.'hich are uncombined with the cloth, 
are removed. After this the cloth is to be thoroughly rinsed in clear 
water. Indigo not requiring any mordant is commonly applied at 
once, either by a block or pencil. It is prepared by boiling it with 
potash, made caustic by quicklime and orpiment; the solution is af- 
terwards thickened with gum. It must be carefully secluded from the 
air, otherwise the indigo v/ould soon become regenerated, thus render- 
ing the solution useless. Some have used coarse brown sugar in- 
stead of orpiment. It is equally efficacious in decomposing the in- 
digo, and rendering it soluble, while it likewise serves all the purposes 
of gum. 

To paint Yellow. For yellow, the block is besmeared with acetate 
of alumiiie. The cloth after receiving this mordant, is died with 
quercitron bark, and is then bleached. 

JVankeen Yellow, is one of the most common colours on prints, 
is a kind of nankeen yellow, of various shades down to a deep yel- 
lowish brown or drab. It is usually in stripes or spots. To produce 
it, besmear a block, cut out into the figure of a print, with acetate of 
iron, thickened with gum or flour; and apply it to the cotton, which 
after being dried and cleansed in the usual manner: is plunged into a 
potash lye. The quantity of acetate of iron is always proportioned 
to the depth of the shade. 

Red, is communicated by the same process, only madder is substi- 
tuted for the bark. 

Blue. The fine light blues which appear so frequently on printed 
cottons, are produced by applying to the cloth a block besmeared 
with a composition, consisting partly of wax, which covers all those 
parts X)f the cloth which remain white. The cloth is then died in a 
cold indigo vat; and after it is dry, the wax composition is removed 
by hot water. 

Lilac and Brown. Lilac, fleece brown, and blackish brown, are 
given by means of acetate of iron; the quantity of which is always 
proportioned to the depth of shade. For very deep colours a little 
sumach is added. The cotton is afterwards died in the usual manner 
with madder, and then bleached. 

Green. To twelve quarts of muriatic acid, add by degrees one 
quart of nitrous acid; saturate the whole with grain tin, and boil it in 
a proper vessel, till two thirds are evaporated. To prepare the indigo 
for mixing with the solution, take nine pounds of indigo, half a pound 
of orange opiment, and grind it in about four quarts of water; mix 
it well with the indigo, and grind the whole in the usual way. 

To mix the solution of Tin loith prepared Indigo. Take two gal- 
Fons of the indigo prepared as above, then stir into it by degrees, one 
gallon of the solution of tin, neutralized by as much caustic alkali as 
can be added without precipitating the tin from the acids. For a 
Hghter shade of green, less indigo ^vill be necessary. The goods are 



i:rai>esman''s guide. 147 

to be dipped in the way of dipping China blues; they must not howev- 
er be allowed to drain, but moved from one vat to another as quickly 
as possible. They are to be cleansed in the usual way, in a sour vat 
of about one hundred and fifty gallons of water to one gallon of sul- 
phuric acid; they are then to be well washed in decoctions of weld, 
and other yellow colour drugs, then branned or bleached till they be- 
come white in those parts which are required colourless. 

To print Dove Colour and Drab. Dove colour and drab are given 
by acetate of iron, and quercitron bark; the cloth is afterwards pre- 
pared in the usual manner. 

To print different Colours. When different colours are to appear in 
the same print, a greater number of operations are necessary. Two 
or more blocks are employed: upon each of which, that part of the 
print only is cut, which is to be of some particular colour. These 
are besmeared with different mordants, and applied to the cloth, which 
is afterwards died as usual. Let us suppose for instance, that those 
blocks are applied to cotton, one with acetate of alumine, another 
with acetate of iron, a third with a mixture of those two mordants, 
and that the cotton is then died with quercitron bark, and bleached. 
The parts impregnated with the mordants, would have the following^ 
colours: 

Acetate of alumine. Yellow. 

" iron, Olive, drab, dove. 

The mixture, Olive green, olive. 

If the part of the yellow is covered over with the indigo liquorj 
applied with a pencil, it will be converted into green. By the same 
liquid, blue may be given to such parts of the print as require it. If 
the cotton is died with madder, instead of quercitron bark; the print 
will exhibit the following colours: 

Acetate of alumine. Red. 

" iron. Brown, black. 

The mixture, Purple. 

When a greater number of colours are to appear; for instance, 
when those communicated by bark, and those by madder are wanted 
at the same time, mordants for parts of the pattern are to be applied, 
the cotton then is to be died in the madder bath, and bleached; then 
the rest of the mordants, to fill up the patterns, are added, and the 
cloth is again died with quercitron bark, and bleached. 

The second dying does not so much affect the madder colours; be- 
cause the mordants, which render them permanent, are already satu- 
rated. The yellow tinge is already removed, by the subsequent 
bleaching. Sometimes a new mordant is apphed to some of the mad- 
der colours, in consequence of which, they receive a new permanent 
colour from the bark. After the last bleaching, new colours may be 
added, by means of the indigo liquor. The following table will give 
an idea of the colours which may be given to cotton by these processes. 



I. Madder Die. 


Acetate of alumine, 


Red. 




" iron, 


Brown, black. 




diluted, 


Lilac. 




Both mixed, 


Purple. 


11. Black Die. 


.Vcetate of alumine, 


Yellow. 




iron. 


Dove, dra'b. 



1^8 THE ARTIST AN1> 

Lilac and acetate of alum. Olive. 
Red and acetate of alum. Orange. 
III. Indigo Die, Indigo, Blue. 

Indigo and yellow, Green. 

To prejmre a Substitute for Gum, used in Calico Printing. Col- 
lect half A ton weight of scraps of pelts or skins, or pieces of rabbit or 
sheep skins, and boil them for seven or eight hours, in 350 gallons of 
water, or until it becomes a strong size. Then draw it off, and when 
cold weigh it. Warm it again, and to every hundred weight, add the 
strongest sweetwort, that can be made from malt, or twenty pounds 
weight of sugar. When incorporated, take it off,' and put it into a cask 
for use. This substitute for gum may be used by calico printers in 
mixing up nearly all kinds of colours. By using only a sixth part of 
gum with it, it will also improve the gum, and be a saving of 200 per 
cent, and without gum, of 400 per cent. It will also improve and 
preserve the paste so much used by printers. 

To prepare Arnotto for Dying. Arnotto is a colouring fecula of a 
resinous nature, extracted from the seeds of a tree very common in 
the West Indies, and which in height never exceeds fifteen feet. 
The Indians employ two processes to obtain the red fecula of these 
seeds. They first pound them, and mix them vWth a certain quantity 
of water, which in the course of five or six days, favours the progress 
of fermentation. The liquid then becomes charged with the colouring 
part, and the superfluous moisture is afterv/ards separated by slow 
evaporation over the fire, or by the heat of the sun. The second pro- 
cess consists in rubbing the seeds between the hands in a vessel filled 
with water. The coloAiring part is precipitated, and forms itself 
into a mass like a cake of wax; but if the red fecula, thus detached, is 
much more beautiful than in the first process, it is less in quantity. 
Besides as the splendour of it is too bright, the Indians are accustom- 
ed to weaken it by a mixture of red sandal wood. 

The natives of the East India islands used formerly to employ arsotto for painting their 
bodies, &c. At present in Europe it is dnly employed" to give the first tints to svoollen stuffs, 
intended to be died red, blue, yellow, green, &c. In the art of the varnisher, it forms part 
of the composition of changing varnishes, to give a gold-colour to the metals on which these 
varnishes are appHed. 

To prepare Dying Materials, c5'C. Arnotto ought to be chosen of 
a flame colour, brighter in the interior part than on the outside; soft 
to the touch, and of a good consistence. The paste of arnotto be- 
comes soft in Europe; and it loses some of its odour, which approach- 
es near to that of violets. 

Of Litmus. The Cape de Yerd islands produce a kind of lichen 
or moss, which yields a violet colouring part, when exposed to the con- 
tact of ammonia disengaged from urine, in a state of putrefaction, by 
a mixture of Ume. When the processes are finished, it is known by 
the name of litmus. This article is prepared on a large scale at Lon- 
don, Paris, and Lyons. In the latter city, another kind of lichen, 
which grows on the rocks is prepared. 

The ammonia joins the resinous part of the plant, develops its colouring part, and combines 
with it. In this state the lichen forms a paste of a violet red colour, interspersed witli whi- 
tish spots, which give it a marbled appearance. Litmus is employed in dying, to communi- 
pate a violet colour to silk and woollen. 

Of Saffron. The flowers of this plant contain two colouring 



TRADESMAJi-S GUIDE. 149 

parts, one soluble in water, which is thrown away; the, other soluble 
in alkaline liquors. The latter colouring part becomes the basis of 
various beautiful shades of cherry colour, rose colour, &c. It is 
employed for dying feathers, and constitutes the vegetable red, or 
Spanish vermilion, employed by ladies to heighten their complexion. 
Carthamus cannot furnish its resinous colouring part, provided with 
all its qualities, until it has been deprived of that which is soluble in 
water. For this purpose, the dried flowers of the carthamus are en- 
closed in a linen bag, and the bag is placed in a stream of running 
water. A man with wooden shoes gets upon the bag every eight or 
ten hours, and treads it on the bank until the water expressed from it 
is colourless. These moist flowers, after being strongly squeezed in 
the bag, are spread out on a piece of canvass, extended on a frame, 
placed over a wooden box, and covered with five or six per cent, of 
their weight of carbonate of soda. Pure water is then poured over 
them; and this process is repeated several times, that the alkali may 
have leisure to become charged with the colouring part, which it dis- 
solves. The liquor when filtered is a dirty red, and almost brown 
colour. The colouring part thus held in solution, cannot be employ- 
ed for colouring bodies until it is free; and to set it at liberty, the so- 
da must be brought into contact with a body which has more aflinity 
for it. 

It is on this precipitation, by an intermediate substance, that the process for making Span- 
ish vermiUon is founded, as well as all the results arising from the direct apphcation of this 
colouring part in the art of dying. 

Of Woad. The preparation for colouring is eflfected from the leaves 
of the plant, by grinding them to a paste, of which balls are made, 
placed in heaps, and occasionally sprinkled with water to promote 
the fermentation; when this is finished, the woad is allowed to fall into 
a coarse powder; used as a blue die stuff. 

Of Indigo. This die is derived from the leaves of the young shoots 
of several species of the plant, by soaking them either in cold water, 
or still better, in water kept warm, and at about 160° Fahrenheit, till 
the liquor becomes a deep green; it is then drawn off, and the blue 
sediment dried, and formed into lumps. 

Of Potatoe Tops, ^c. Cut off the tops when they are in flower, and 
extract the juice, by bruising and pressing them. Linen or woollen 
imbibed in this liquor forty-eight hours, will take a brilliant, solid and 
permanent yellow. If the cloth be afterwards plunged in a blue die, 
it will acquire a beautiful permanent; green colour. As to the mode 
of execution, it should pass through the hands of a chemist or skilful 
dier, to derive all the advantages it is capable of furnishing. To pre- 
pare cotton and hnen to receive certain colours, particularly the red 
madder, and cross wort, the article of sheep's manure is made use of, 
as it forms, by impregnating the stuffs with an animal mucilage, of 
which it contains a large quantity, and thus assimilating them to wool 
and silk. 

To print Carpets. These carpets are made of knitted wool, by 
means of a machine; they are afterwards pressed and receive all the 
colours and designs wished for. These designs printed on the tissue, 
by means of wooden boards, are extremely neat; the colours are very 
brilliant, and resist rubbing extremely well, provided they traverse the 



lo^ TEE ARTIST AN.6 

tissue from one part to another. They are warm, and have the ad- 
vantage of being cheaper than others. They are also as durable, and 
are not crossed by seams disagreeable to the eye. 

CHAPTER XXVII. 

FACTORS, AGENTS, &c. 

It is generally considered that a factor is a merchant's agent, resi- 
dent abroad, and constituted by letters of attorney to act for his prin- 
cipal; and one may act for several merchants, who all run a joint risk 
of his management; factorage is the allowance. In this country, 
however, custom has distinguished -factors as commission merchants, 
particularly, when they receive goods to dispose of, for and on ac- 
count, and at the risk of the consignor, or purchase goods to order at 
a stipulated or customary per centum for sales or services. Various 
charges may arise on consignments exclusive of commissions, as a 
city and state tax, (particularly, in some places, when sales are effect- 
ed at auction,) guarantee, &c. besides freight or portage, &c. It is 
frequent in cases of consignment, to empower the agent to dispose 
of the goods without limitation in regard to prices, or terms of pay- 
ment; that is, an agent may act independently, as if the property was 
his own; but still, it must be remembered, he is subject to a govern- 
ing iwinciple, not to effect a sale at less than a market price, or on an 
unusually eritended term of credit, or for paper, which at the time of 
sale, would generally be considered, in that market, as doubted: in ei- 
ther case, he would make himself liable for damages to the amount 
the transaction produced. In all cases of consignment it is not safe 
for a commissron merchant to effect sales on a credit, without particu- 
lar orders. 

It has been adjudged by chief justice Holt, that every factor of 
common right shall sell for ready money; but if he be where the usage 
is to sell on r, credit, then, if he sells to a person of undoubted credit, 
who afterwards becomes insolvent, he is discharged; but otherwise, if 
the man's credit vi^as bad at the time of sale. But if there is no such 
usage, and he on the general authority sells upon trust, he only is 
chargeable, hovv-ever able the buyer is; for having exceeded his au- 
thority, there is no contract between the vendee and the factor's prin- 
cipal, and such sale is a conversion in the factor. Pasch. 13, Will. III. 

If a factor selling goods on credit does, before payment die indebt- 
ed by specialty more than his effects will pay, this money shall be paid 
to the principal, and not to the factor's administrator as part of his ef- 
fects, deducting only the factor's commission. Decreed in Equity, 
Hill. 1708, 2 Vern. 638. 

If a factor give a man time for payment of money contracted on sale 
of his priucipal's goods, and after that time has elapsed, sells him 
goods of his own for ready money, and he becomes insolvent, the fac- 
tor in equity and honesty should indemnify his principal, but he is not 
compelled by the common law. Molloy, 440. 

And if any factor sells goods for another, either by themselves, or 
among other things, not advising his principal, but deahng afterwards 
with the same man, he becomes insolvent, the factor shall be answer- 
able, because he gave- not the owner advice of the sale in due time. 



tradesman's ftUIftE. 151 

and it is as if he had sold them contraiy to commission, for the salary 
of factorage binds him to it. Also if by a. merchant's commission he 
buys a commodity for his account, with the merchant's money or cred- 
it, and he give no advice of it, but sell it again for his ov/n benefit, the 
merchant shall recover this benefit, and the factor shall Ukewise be 
amerced for the fraud. 

If a factor by commission buys goods above the price limited to 
him, or not of the sort and goodness, as by the authority they ought to 
be, he must take them to his own account, and the merchant may dis- 
claim the buying of them; as he may likewise, if they are shipped for 
another place than he ordered: but in such case if the price riseth, and 
the factor thereupon fraudulently ladeth them for some other port, the 
merchant may recover damages on proof. 

A factor selling under the price limited to him, is to make good the 
difference, unless he gives a good reason for so doing. Lex JMercaf, 
Malines, 82. 

A factor, and assistant or apprentice differs in this, that the first is 
made by merchants' letters, to take commission, but the assistant or 
apprentice is retained with yearly wages, some without: a factor is 
answerable for loss sustained by misusing his com.mission, an assist- 
ant or apprentice only incurs displeasure; factors must therefore punc- 
tually observe their commissions. Factors, most commonly, deal for 
several; but a servant dealing for others by his master's direction, can- 
not be a subject for indemnification for losses, for he has only his 
master's credit; whereupon intirnatious, citations, attachments, and 
other lawful causes, are executed against servants and not against 
factors. 

No factor, acting for account of another, can justify receding from 
his orders, though it might be to advantage, unless commissioned to 
act for the best. And hence, if four or five merchants remit to one 
factor four or five distinct parcels of goods, which he disposes jointly 
to one person, who pays one moiety down, and contracts for the rest 
at a certain time; before which if he break, the principals shall bear 
an equal share of loss. Lex Mercat. Malines, 81, 82. 

If a factor sell at one time to one man, goods belonging to diverse, 
to be paid for in one or more payments, without distinction made by 
the buyer for what parcels he pays any sums in part, as shopkeepers 
do, the factor must make proportionable distribution of the monies re- 
ceived, according to the amount of each parcel, till all be paid; and if 
loss happen, or all be not paid, it is to be distributed in like manner. 

As fidehty, diligence and honesty are expected from the factor, the law 
requires the hke of the principal; if, therefore^ a merchant remits coun- 
terfeit jewels to his factor, who sells them as if true, if he receives 
loss or prejudice by imprisonment or other punishment, shall not only 
make full satisfaction to the factor, but also to the party who bought 
the jewels: for he shall answer in all cases for his factor, where he is 
privy to the act or wrong. This was insisted on in the case of South- 
ern vs. How, on a sale made to the king of Barbary; though in that 
case, after various arguments, given against the plaintiff. I2. Cro» 
468. Bridgm. 126, 128. 

And so in contracts; if a factor buy goods on account of the princi- 
pal, especially if usqd so to do, the contract shall oblige the princip^al. 



152 THE ARTIST AND 

who is properly to be prosecuted for non-perforRiance. But it has 
been held, if a factor or servant buy things generally, not declaring on 
the contract, that it is as a factor only, &c. he is chargeable in his own 
right. 2. Keh, 812. 

The actions of factors depend on buying and selling, entering 
goods, freighting ships, and all other matters of commerce; and their 
trust being great, they should be provident, for the benefit of their 
principals. If goods sent to a factor, be through his negligence, false- 
ly entered, or landed without an officer of the customs, so as they in- 
cur a seizure, he shall make good the damage: but, if he make his 
entry according to the invoice, or advice by letter, and there happens 
a mistake, if any goods are lost, he shall be acquitted. Lane's 
Rep. 65. 

If the principal order his factor to insure a ship and goods as 
soon as laden, having money in hand, and he neglect, if the ship 
miscarry, by the custom of merchants, he shall answer it; or if he make 
any composition with the insurers after insurance, without orders so to 
do, he is answerable for the whole insurance. 

A factor entering into charter party of affreightment, with a master 
of a ship, it obligates him only; unless he lades abroad generally the 
priacipaPs goods, when both principal and lading are liable and not the 
factor. 

A merchant sends goods to his factor, and about a month after 
draws a bill on him; which having effects in hand, he accepts, the 
principal becomes a bankrupt, and the goods in the factor's hands are 
seized; it has been conceived, that, at law, the factor must answer the 
bill, and can come in only as a creditor, for what he paid by his ac- 
ceptance of it. Molloy, 442 

Goods remitted to a factor must be carefully preserved; yet, if he 
buys for his principal, and they receive damage afterwards, but not 
through his negligence, the principal shall bear the loss. 

A factor having made considerable profit for his principal, must be 
careful in the disposal of it. If he sells the principal's goods for coun- 
terfeit money, the loss is his own; but if he receives money, which is 
afterwards lessened in value where he resides, the loss is to the mer- 
chant. 

A factor is accountable for all lawful goods coming safe to his hands, 
and shall suffer for not observing orders: if, having orders not to sell 
any goods particularly specified, he sells them, he is answerable for 
the damage that shall be received; goods bought or exchanged without 
orders the merchant may take or turn them on the factor's hands. 
And where a factor has bought or sold pursuant to orders, he must 
immediately give advice of it, lest they should be contradicted, and his 
reputation suffer: and he is to ship off goods bought, the first opportu- 
nity, giving the speediest advice, and sending a bill of lading. 

Factors should carefully note the contents of their principal's let- 
ters, and send speedy and particular answers; and should study the 
nature, value, rise and fall of goods, both at home and abroad, and the 
want of frequent wiiting to their principals is often of pernicious con- 
sequence in diverse respects. 

Where a factor deserves money for factorage, it is said he cannot 
bring an action for it, unless the principal refuse to account; and, if il 



TRADESMAN'S GUIDE. l53 

appears that the factor hath money in his hands, he may detain, and 
cannot bring any action, but if directed to invest tl'.e amount of sales, he 
may bring an action for factorage, because he cannot detain, and hath 
no other remedy. Comhert, 349. 

If a factor, by error of account, wrongs a merchant, he is to make 
good, not only the principal, but interest for the time; and if the error 
be against himself, the merchant is to answer it in like manner. 

CHAPTER XXVIII. 
DISCOUNT AND COMMISSION. 

Discount is a deduction from a given amount; it is applied in trans-, 
actions between ^factor, commission merchant or auctioneer, &c. and 
a merchant or manufacturer; for instance, A ^consigns B [articles 
amounting to ^100, orders sales to be effected at invoice prices, and 
agrees to discount 25 cents on the dollar for B's services: thus, it 
will be perceived the factor or agent, clears 33y^o- per cent. 
X The principle of commissions per centum, in cases of consignment 
is founded upon the buying and selling of commodities; and is by 
some called factorage: thus, a merchant buys an article for ^1, and 
sells the same for $1,25, he makes a profit of 25 percent, if he sells 
what cost him 75 cents for $1, he clears 33 /^ per cent. Hence, we 
learn there is a difference in the term discount, and that of commis- 
sions per cent, and that a commission per cent, is not to be under- 
stood, as it is generally, a discount on the dollar. It may perhaps be 
more clearly illustrated as follows: we will suppose A consigns B 
$1000 worth of goods, at 25 per cent, commission: (not 25 cents dis- 
count,) now, in otder to ascertain the amount of B's commission, we 
say, as 1,25 is to 1 so is 1250 to 1000, or if $1,25 gives 25 per cent, 
so does $1000 with the same ratio of advance, produce the same re- 
sult: or thus, if $1 produces 25 cents, what does $1000? Evidently, 
33_3^ per cent. If $1,25 is only 25 per cent, what is the per cent on 
$1 ? As 1,25 is 25 so is 1,00, the answer is 20 per cent; or as 1250 
is 25 so is 1000, producing the same answer; which also furnishes 
us with the fact that 25 per cent, commission, amounts to a discount 
of 20 cents on the dollar. We are aware that this subject is a matter 
of frequent disputation among mercantile men, but at the same time 
our statement is no less correct. We have availed ourselves of the 
opinion of some of the most eminent practical merchants, and are as- 
sured that they not only make the distinction, but that the merchants 
and manufacturers of Europe, govern themselves by the principles 
which we have laid down, in most instances. 

To one who is unacquainted with mercantile transactions and cus- 
toms, we should suppose it would seem a singular operation to learn, 
that the merchant with cash furnishing himself with bills of parcels 
amounting to $1000, in order to make 25 per cent, had to sell them 
for $1250, while the commission merchant or factor, encountering no 
risk, either by the depreciation of property, or otherwise, makes the 
same total as the former in accompHshing a business of 25 per cent, 
less amount. Notwithstanding, custom may not give her sanction to 
the correctness of our statement, yet we have no doubt the laws would 
confirm the fact. 

U 



154 THE JLRTIST A^'D 

CHAPTER XXIX. 
BLEACHING. 

The mode of bleaching which least injures the texture of the cloth 
formed of vegetable substances, is that effected by merely exposing it 
in a moistened state to the atmosphere, having been steeped in a solu- 
tion of potash or soda, but the length of time and other inconveniences 
attending this process, led to more active chemical processes. It is by 
the combination of oxygen with the colouring matter of the cloth, that it 
is deprived of its hue, and the different processes employed must be 
adapted to prepare it for this cembination, and render it as perfect as 
as possible, without destroying its texture, an effect which, however, 
must necessarily ensue in a greater or less degree, from the union of 
oxygen with all bodies. 

To bleach linen, &c. by oxymuriatic acid, it is necessary to ascer- 
tain its strength, in which a solution of indigo in the acid is employed. 
The colour of this is destroyed by the oxygenated muriatic acid; ac- 
cording to the' quantity of it that can be discoloured by a given quan- 
tity of the liquor its strength is known. In this country, machinery is 
employed for rinsing and beating; the apparatus must be arranged ac- 
cording to the objects to be bleached; the skeins of thread must be sus- 
pended in the tub destined for them, and the cloth must be rolled upon 
reels in the apparatus. When (■very thing is thus disposed, the tubs 
are filled v>ith oxygenated muriatic acid; by introducing a funnel, 
which descends to the bottom of the tub, in order to prevent the dis- 
persion of gas. The cloth is wound on the frame worlf, on which the 
skeins are suspended, is turned several times, until it is judged, by 
taking out a small quantity of the liquor from time to time, and trying 
it by the test of the solution of indigo, that it is sufficiently exhausted. 

The weakened liquor is tKen drawn off, and may be again used for 
a new saturation. In bleaching with the oxymuriate of lime, a large 
<|uantity of lime is combined with the oxymuriatic acid gas, to effect 
which, the lime is mechanically suspended in water, into which the 
gas is made to pass, and agitated; so as to present fresh matter to the 
gas. By this means the oxymuriate of lime is formedjin a very conven- 
ient manner; it is dissolved in water, and used as a bleaching liquor. 
This liquor is preferable to the oxygenated muriatic acid and potash. 

At the great bleach field in Ireland, four lyes of potash are apphed 
alternately, with four weeks exposure on the grass, two immersions in 
ihe oxymuriate of lime, a lye of potash between the two, and the expo- 
sure of a Vvcek on the grass, between each lye and the immersion. 
During summer two lyes and fifteen days exposure are cufficient to 
prepare cloth for the oxygenated muriate; the three alternate lyes, 
with immersions in the liquor, will be sufficient to complete the bleach- 
ing; nothing then will be necessary, but' to wind the cloth through the 
sulphuric acid. 

The oxygenate J muriatic '^as )nay also be combined with lime in a dry state, or the wafer 
may be evaporated, when it is employed for the formation of oxymiiriates, which may then be 
Tery conveniently transported to any distance without injury to its detersive power. 

To prepare the sulphate of lime, take sulphur or brimstone in fine 
powder, four pounds; lime well slacked and sifted, twenty pounds; wa- 
ter Sixteen gallons; these are to be well mixed, and boil(*d for half an 



tradesman's GUjr/E. 15S 

hour in an iron vessel, stirring them briskly from time to lime. Soon 
after the agitation of boiling is over, the solution of the sulphuret of 
lime clears, and may be drawn off free from the insoluble matter.whicii 
is considerable, and which rests upon the bottom of the boiler. The 
liquor in this state, is nearly the colour of small beer, but not so trans- 
parent. Sixteen gallons of fresh water are afterwards poured on the 
insoluble dregs in the boiler, in order to separate the whole of the 
sulphuret from them. When this clears, being previously agitated, it 
is drawn off and mixed with the first liquor. Thirty-three gallons more 
of water may be added to the liquor, thus reducing it to a proper stand- 
ard for steeping the cloth; and v/hich furnishes sixty gallons of liquor 
from four pounds of brimstone, making allowance for evaporation. 
Wiien hnen is freed from the weaver's dressmg, it is to be steeped in 
the solution of sulphuret of lime (prepared as above) for about twelve 
or eighteen hours, then taken out and well washed. When dry, it is 
to be steeped in the oxymuriate of lime for twelve or more hours, and 
then washed and dried. This process is to be repeated six times, that 
is, by six alternate immersions in each liquor, which has been found 
to whiten the linen. 

Steam has lately been employed with great success. The process 
was brought from the Levant. Chapel first made it known to the 
public. The cloth is first immersed in a slight alkaline caustic liquor, 
and placed in a chamber constructed over a boiler, into which is put the 
alkaline lye, which is to be raised into steam, after the fire has been 
lighted, and the cloth has remained exposed to the action of the steam 
for a sufficient length of time, it is taken out and immersed in the 
oxygenated muriate of lime, and then exposed for two or three days on 
the grass. This operation, which is very expeditious, will be suffi- 
cient for cotton; but if linen cloth should retain a yellow tint, a second 
alkaline caustic vapour bath, and two or three days on the grass, will 
be sufficient to give it the necessary whiteness. 

To bleach by alkahzed steam, the high temperature swells up the fi- 
bres of the cloth; the pure alkali which rises with the elastic fluid, 
seizes with avidity on the colouring matter; and seldom does the tis- 
sue of the flax or hemp resist the penetrating effect of this vapour 
bath. 

The alkali appears to have a much livelier and more caustic action, 
when it is combined with caloric, than in ordinary lyes, where the 
temperature never rises above 162 ° Fahrenheit. By making the cloth 
pass thj;ough the lys of oxygenated muriate of lime, an union is effect- 
ed between the solution and the carbon, arising from the extracto- 
mucous matter of the flax; carbonic acid is formed; the water, even, in 
which this new compound is diluted, concurs to promote the combina- 
tion; if the cloth is then exposed on the grass, the carbonic acid is dis- 
sipated, and the cloth is bleached. 

To bleach Cotton. The first operation consists in scouring it in a 
slight alkaline solution; or what is better, by exposure to steam. It is 
then put into a basket, and rinsed in running water. The immersion 
of cotton in an alkaline lye, however it may be rinsed, always leaves 
with it an earthy deposite. It is well known that cotton bears the ac- 
tion of acids better than hemp or flax; that time is even necessary be- 
fore the action of them can be prejudicial to it, and by takiiig advait- 



156 > THE ARTIST AND 

tage of this valuable property in regard to bleaching, means have been 
found to free it from the earthy deposite, by pressing down the cotton in 
a very weak solution of sulphuric acid, and afterwards removing the 
acid by washing, lest too long remainfing in it should destroy the cotton. 

To bleach Wool. The first kind of bleaching to which wool is sub- 
jected, is to free it from grease. This operertion is called scouring. 
In manufactories it is generally performed by ammoniacal lye, formed 
of five measures of river water, and one of stale urine; the wool is im- 
mersed for about twenty minutes, in a bath of this mixture, heated to 
fifty-six degrees; it is then taken out, suffered to drain, and then rins- 
ed in running water; this manipulation softens the wool, and gives it 
the first degree of whiteness; it is then repeated a second, and even 
a third time, after which the wool is fit to be employed. In some 
places scouring is performed with water slightly impregnated with 
soap; and, indeed, for valuable articles, this process is preferable, 
but too expensive for articles of less value. Sulphurous acid gas 
unites very easily with water, and in this combination it may be em- 
ployed for bleaching wool or silk. 

The most economical way of preparing sulphurous acid, is, by de- 
composing the acid, by the mixture of any combustible matter, capa- 
ble of taking from it any part of its oxygen. When the chemist is 
desirous to have it in great purity, it is obtained by means of metallic 
substances, and particularly by mercury, but for the purpose of which 
we are treating, where great economy is required, we should recom- 
mend most common substances. Take chopped straw, or saw dust, 
and introduce it into a matrass; pour over it sulphuric acid, applying 
at the same time heat, and there will be disengaged sulphurous acid 
gas, which may be combined with water in an apparatus. The pieces 
are rolled upon reels, and are drav/n through the acid by turning them 
until sufficiently white. They are then taken out and left to drain on 
a bench covered with cloth, lest they should be stained in consequence 
of the decomposition of the wood by the sulphurous acid; they are 
then washed in river water, and Spanish white is employed, if it should 
be judged necessary. This operation is performed by passing the 
pieces through a tub of clean water, in which about eight pounds of 
Spanish white has been dissolved. To obtain a fine whiteness, the 
stuffs are generally twice sulphured. According to this process, one 
immersion, and reeling two or three hours, are sufficient. Azuring or 
bluing is performed by throwing into the Spanish white liquor, a solu- 
tion of one part Prussian blue to four hundred of water; shaking the 
cloth in the liquid and reeling rapidly. The operation is terminated 
by a slight washing with soap, to give softness and pliability to the 
stuffs. 

A preparation of an improved bleaching liquor; is prepared as fol- 
lows: by a dissolution in water of the oxygenated muriates of calca- 
reous earths, barytes, strontites, or magnesia. The earth should be 
prepared in the dry way, by bringing them in a solid form, in powder, 
or in paste, in contact with the oxygenated muriatic acid gas. So pre- 
pared, dissolve them in water, and apply them to the substances re- 
quired to be bleached. By this mode, colours may be removed from 
linen, cotton, vegetable and other substances. (See also bleaching 
liquid, page 46. To extinguish colours, 43.^ 



tradesman's guide. 157 

To bleach Straw ^ <^c. Cover the bottom of a small plate a quarter 
of an inch deep with water. Put a small piece of common brimstone 
upon a sheet iron bench set in the plate, which is sufficiently heated to 
inflame the brimstone, and shut it over a tubulated bell glass, or a 
tumbler with a hole in the bottom. This vessel must be of a size just 
to shut down within the rim of the plate. At first take the stopper out 
and raise the bell glass a little above the water, to give passage to a 
current of air. Regulate this by the progress of the burning sulphur. 
After the bell glass appears well filled with a white vapour, shut it 
down close and tighten the stopper. The water in the y^late will ab- 
sorb the sulphurous acid gas in about five minutes. Pour part of this 
water into wine glasses, and you will perceive tjie nauseous, sulphur- 
ous, astringent taste, peculiar to this acid. . In the mean time wet 
several substances, coloured with vegetable colouring matter, and it 
^vill extinguish many of them if not all. A yellow straw braid be- 
comes whitened in it; and some colours on calico will be extinguish- 
ed. The liquid sulphurous acid loses this property by keeping. 

It is used by milliners both in the liquid and in the gaseous state 
for bleaching straw bonnets. If the old straw braid is soaked a while 
in water and then suspended inside of a hogshead or barrel without 
a head, and brimstone is inflated at the bottom of a cask, and suflered 
to commence burning thoroughly, then the top covered over, the straw 
will soon become wlutened by the action of this acid. 

To whiten Wax. Melt it in a pipkin without boiling. Then take 
a wooden pestle, which steep in the wax two inches deep and plunge 
immediately in cold water, to loosen the wax from it, which will come 
oft' like sheets of paper. When you have got all of your wax out of 
the pipkin, and made into flakes, put it on a clean towei, and expose it 
in the air, on the grass, till it is white. Then melt it and strain it 
through a muslin, to take all the dust out of it, if there be any. 

Method of purifying Tallow to make Candles. Take five eighths 
of tallow and three eighths of mutton suet; melt them in a copper 
cauldron with half a pound of grease; as soon as they are melted, mix 
eight ounces of brandy, one salts of tartar, one cream of tartar, one 
sal ammoniac, and two of pure dry potash: throw the mixture into the 
cauldron and make the ingredients boil a quarter of an hour; then let 
the whole cool. The next day the tallow will be found upon the 
surface of the water in a pure cake. Take it out and expose it to the 
action of the air, on canvass for several days. It will become white, 
and almost as hard as wax. The dew is very favourable to bleaching; 
make your wick of fine even cotton, give them a coat of melted wax; 
then cast your mould candles. They will have much the appearance 
of wax, and one of six to the pound, will burn fourteen hours and nev- 
er run. 

To make Mutton Suet Candles in imitation of Wax Candles. 
1. Throw quicklime in melted mutton suet; the lime will fall to the 
bottom, and carry with it every impurity, so as to leave it pure and 
fine as wax itself. 

2. Now if with one part of that suet you mix three of real wax, 
you will be unableto distinguish the mixture; even in the casting and 
moulding wax figures or ornaments. 



I5S THE ARTIST AND 

CHAPTER XXX. 
IMITATION SPIRITS. 

We will obsen'e in the article on rectification, that the common 
method of rectifying spirits from alkaline salts, destroys their vinos- 
ity, and in its stead introduces a lixivious taste. But as it is absolute- 
ly necessary to restore, or at least to substitute in its room, some de- 
gree of vinosity, several methods have been proposed, and a multitude 
of experiments performed, in order to discover this great desideratum: 
but none have succeeded equal to the spirit of nitre: and accordingly 
this spirit, either strong or dulcified, has been used by most distillers, 
to give an agreeable vinosity to their spirits. Several difficulties, 
however, occur in the method of using it, the principal of which is, its 
being apt to quit the liquor in a short time, and consequently depriv- 
ing the liquor of that vinosity it was intended to give. In order to 
remove this difficulty, and prevent the vinosity from quitting the goods, 
the dulcified spirit of nitre, which is much better than the strong spirit, 
should be prepared by a previous digestion, continued some time with 
alcohol; the longer the digestion is continued, the more intimately will 
they be blended, and the compound rendered the milder and softer. 
After a proper digestion, the dulcified spirit should be mixed with the 
brandy, by which means the vinosity will be intimately blended with the 
goods, and disposed not to fly off for a very considerable time. No 
general rule can be given for the quantity of this mineral acid requi- 
site to be employed, because different proportions of it are necessary 
in different spirits. It should however, be carefully adverted to, that 
tho' a small quantity of it will undoubtedly give an agreeable vinosity 
resembling that naturally found in the fine subtile spirits drav/n from 
wines, yet an over large dose of it, will not only cause a disagreeable 
flavour, but also render the whole design abortive, by discovering the 
imposition. Those therefore, who endeavour to cover a foul taste in 
goods by large doses of dgjj^ified spirit of nitre, wiM find themselves 
deceived. 

But the best, and indeed the only method of imitating Erench bran- . 
dies to perfection, is by an essential oil of wine; this being the very 
thing that gives the French brandies their flavour. It must however, 
be remembered, that in order to use this ingredient to advantage, a 
pure tasteless spirit must be first procured; for it is ridiculous to ex- 
pect that this essential oil should be able to give the agreeable flavour 
of the French brandies, to our fulsome malt spirit, already loaded with 
its own nauseous oil, or strongly impregnated with a lixivious taste 
from the alkaline salts, used in rectification. How a pure insipid spir- 
it may be obtained, will be given in the chapter on distillation. It on- 
ly therefore remains to show the method of procuring the essential oil 
of wine, which is this. Take some cakes of dry wine lees, such as 
are used by hatters, dissolve them in six or eight times their weight of 
water, distil the liquor with a. slow fire, and separate the oil by a sepa- 
rating glass; reserving for the nicest uses, that only which comes over 
first, the succeeding oil being coarser and more resinous. 

Having procured this fine oil of wine, it may be mixed into a quin- 
tessence with pure alcohol; by which means it may be preserved a 



tradesman's GUi»E. 159 

long time fully possessed of all its flavour and virtues; but without 
such management, it will soon grow resinous and rancid. 

When a fine essential oil of wine is thus procured, and also a pure 
and insipid spirit, French brandies may be imitated to perfection Avith 
rejrard to the flavour. It must, however, be remembered, and care- 
fully adverted to, that the essential oil be drawn from the same sort of 
lees as the brandy to be imitated was procured from: we mean in or- 
der to imitate cogniac brandy, it will be necessary to distil the essen- 
tial oil from cogniac lees; and the same for any other kind of brandy. 
For as different brandies, have different fl.avours, and these flavours 
are owing entirely to the essential oil of the grape, it v/ould be prepos- 
terous t6 endeavour to imitate the flavour of cogniac brandy, with an 
essential oil procured from the lees of Bordeaux svine. When the fla- 
vour of the brandy is well imitated by a proper dose of the essential 
oil, and the whole reduced into one simple and homogeneous fluids 
other difficulties are still behind; the flavour, though the essential part, 
is not however the only one; the colour, the proof and the softness 
must be regarded, before a spirit, that perfectly resembles French 
brandy can be procured. With regard to the proof, it may be easily 
hit, by using a spirit rectifxcd above proof; which after being intimate- 
ly mixed with the essential oil of wine, may be let down to a proper 
standard by fair water. As the softness may in a great measure be 
obtained by distilling and rectifying the spirit with a gentle fire: and 
what is wanting of this criterion in the liquor, when first made, will be 
supplied by time; for it must be remembered, that it is time alone that 
gives this property to the French brandies; they being af first like our 
spirits, acrid, foul and fiery. But with regard to the colour, a partic- 
ular colour is necessary to imitate it to perfection; and how that may^ 
be done is considered in the article on colouring .spirits. 

Our observations respecting the methods of imitating brandies, are 
not made with a view to favour impositions, by palming them oflf as 
real; but we are not sensible of the impropriety of sellmg them as 
imitation spirits. 

We will further suggest to those, who, in order to reduce the price 
of spirits, mix some of the pure (the spirit which they wish to imitate) 
with neutral spirit, that quite an improvement can be made in imitat- 
ing French brandies, by adding a small quantity of rich mountain Mal- 
aga wine, commonly called sweet ivine. The experiment will con- 
vince us of the fact, though we still adhere to our first position, that 
the essential oil obtained from the lees of wine to be the best; but to 
those who do not deal largely, this last method may be substituted ad- 
vantageously. The reader is also referred to remarTis on apple spirit. 

St. Croix Rum. Molasses spirit, commonly called New England 
rum, rectified, furnishes us undoubtedly with the.bsst body for mixing. 
We have said, it is quite ridiculous to mix our malt spirit with brandies, 
and it is also true, in regard to the mm of the islands; however, we 
are sensible a great improvement may be made in neutrahzing malt 
spirits, and that it is not a subject to be esteemed lightly by the distil- 
ler. The molasses spirit is manufactured from the same ingredient 
which the spirit we wish to combine with it, is obtained^ the essential 
oil which gives the flavour to both spirits being the same; the differ- 
ence then, must be produced by the diflferent processes of manufacture 



160 THE ARTIST AND 

ing, and also the quality of the cane must be taken into consideration, 
even, as we have stated respecting the grape. Enough has already 
been said, to convince the reader quite a different flavoured spirit 
must be produced, by mixing malt spirit, with that obtained from cane, 
than they are intended to represent, when they are blended togeth- 
er. The best neutralized molasses spirit, can be obtained for ten cents 
per gallon more than that which is usually put up for the trade. It 
need not be said that the Boston market furnishes the best new rum, 
and that it produces also the best neutralized, of any which we have 
ever seen. It can easily be obtained at 60 per cent, above proof; there 
are considerable quantities manufactured of a very ordinary quality; 
consequently no article in commerce, requires more care in selecting. 
,The purchaser will do well to observe, that the best is colourless, and 
free from a burnt or smoky flavour, which in either case, the spirit is 
unfit to mix. • 

St.Vincents is next in quality to St. Croix, admits of the same pro- 
cess as described above, in order to reduce the price. However, it 
must always be considered that much depends on the quality of the 
goods which you blend with the neutralized spirit; much care and ex- 
perience is required in selecting that which is high scented and fine 
flavoured: the difference of cargoes in this respect, is more than we 
are generally inclined to admit. Hogsheads of rum of prime quahty is 
a very scarce staple, and when found, it should be prized very highly; 
and indeed it is, by the city dealers, who are generally apprised of its 
worth; for it will certainly work up a great quantity of neutral rum ad- 
vantageously. 

Grenada Rum, can be imitated very well, with the neutralized mo- 
lasses spirit, and a small quantity of very high flavoured Jamaica 
spirits. 

Jamaica Spirits, if highly scented, are very much improved by add- 
ing the neutraUzed molasses spirit; the compound would be preferred 
hy most palates, after acquiring a sufficient ripenes^. 

Neutralized molasses spirit of the first quality will pass for better Windward Island rum, 
than any rum of the Islands can, with the least addition of malt spirit. 

Holland Gin, can be reduced in price, and a very fair flavour retain- 
ed, by mixing it with that v/hich is manufactured in our own country: 
some of the American is very nearly as good as imported; and would be 
quite, if the manufacturers were as careful as the Hollanders in man- 
ufacturing it: age, however, is a very necessary qualification to recom- 
mend all spirits. 

Rectified Whiskey mixes with gin better than any other spirit; and«if 
it must be resorted to, in order to reduce the price of the Holland gin, 
we would recommend a very small quantity of the oil of juniper, to be 
added, (first mixed with high wines, and then added to a small quan- 
tity of gin, when the whole may be put into the cask,) though we 
should prefer a few fresh juniper berries, when they can easily be ob- 
tained: mash them and digest in alcohol a short while, then pour the 
tincture into the cask. 



tradesman's guide. '161 

CHAPTER XXXI. 
CREDITS. 

None will deny, that every considerable trader ought to have some 
stock, or cash capital of his own; the most judicious traders, like bank- 
ers, are always careful to keep their dealings within the extent of their 
capital, that no disappointment may incapacitate them to support their 
credit. Yet traders of worth, judgment and economy, are sometimes 
under the necessity of borrowing money, to carry on their business to 
the best advantage; as when the merchant has commodities on hand, 
•which he wishes to keep for a rising market, or on accoimt of monies 
accruing to him, which he is disappointed in receiving. On occa- 
sions like these, taking up money at interest, is not disreputable, but a 
great convenience; thus enabling him to carry on his business more 
successfully; but the borrower ought to be well assured, that he has 
sufficient effects w ithin his power to liquidate the obligations in due 
time. 

But, if the trader borrows Tnoney to the extent of his credit, and 
launches out into trade, emplcymg it as his own, such management is 
extremely precarious, and is generally attended with the most prepos- 
terous consequences: for trade is subject to losses and disappoint- 
ments; and when once a trader brings his credit into doubt, it may 
and will drav/ all his creditors, at the same time, upon him; conse- 
quently rendering him incapable of drawing in eo much of his scattered 
effects as will discharge his debts, and thereby ruin his credit, altho* 
he might have believed he had more than enough to satisfy the whole 
world. 

As, therefore, a wise man will trade so cautiously, as not to haz- 
ard the loss of his own proper estate at once, much m.ore, should an 
honest man be careful not to involve the estates of others, in his per- 
sonal trading adventures. But he that knows he has lost bis own for- 
tune, and endeavours to recover it by trading with the stock of other 
men, although he may be actuated by good motives, still cannot have a 
pretence to the character of being judicious. The dealing for goods 
on a credit, was, probably, at first introduced, by trusting young men 
commencing in trade, whose chief, and perhaps only stock, might be 
the opinion of their capacity, industry, and honesty: and as this is con- 
tinued to retailers, and those who trade on a small stock, it maybe 
reckoned a commendable, and useful practice; but whether the prac- 
tice of this liberality should be extended to the wholesale trader, in so 
unlimited a manner, as is customary in most of our trading cities, is a 
consideration which admits of great doubt. This maxim mny, howev- 
er be advanced with some confidence, that a merchant should never 
purchase goods on short credit, with intent to meet the time of pay- 
ment by remittances from cash sales of the same goods, as conse- 
quences might follow, not only ruinous to those who try the experi- 
ment, but injurious to trade in several ways. Under such circum- 
stances, the trader finding his expectances failing, is induced to offer 
his articles at reduced prices, as a last resource from impending ruin; 
but ten to one, and a most fortunate occurrence, if he does not find 
his financial system on the debit side of profit and loss. There may, 
and certainly are cases when a merchant may be justified in forcing 

W 



162 THE ARTIST i.N» 

sales, though it has ever been found, as a general principle, unwise: it 
disturbs the whole current of trade, and drives it out of its natural 
channel; hundreds falling into the stream, in this way, float among 
breakers, and finally split on rocks, or are cast on quicksands, hardly 
ever to-be recovered. The forcing of trade produces a general intro- 
duction of goods of an ordinary quality. Is it not a fact, that when 
one among a number of traders, introduces a financial trade, his neigh- 
bours are induced to replenish their stocks with inferior articles (in or- 
der to retain their customers,) which will afford them the same profit 
at less prices, as when accustomed to keep prime articles? And after 
obtaining the reputation of selling goods of indifierent quality, is it not 
the case that other places receive the trade, which otherwise might 
not have been thus imprudently lost? 

"Cheap Stores" are not always found to have the cheapest goods, 
if we reckon by principles of profit to the purchaser; for the quali- 
ties of most goods, correspond with the prices. It is observable that 
those merchants generally succeed the best, who have the reputation of 
keeping prime articles, and are not so very tenacious of acquiring the 
fame of selling remarkably cheap. 

It is no doubt to be considered an established principle among 
traders, when they have occasion to make use of their credit, it should 
be for the borrowing of money, but never for the buying of goods; thus 
enabling them to purchase at the best possible advantage. 

There is another evil in trade, which we have seen and which we 
believe deserves some consideration. Some traders exhibit a won- 
derful diffidence or modesty, fearing to offend, in collecting their dues; 
particularly, when they are against persons of acknowledged respon- 
sibility, who certainly ought to be the most prompt, as they are most 
enabled to make their payments. It could be said many, and very 
many merchants have suffered on this account. 

But is it oflen the case, that the debtor under such circumstances 
is unwilling to avail himself of the advantage thus offered? However 
such customers may consider the subject, certainty, they are not to 
be estimated among the number in building up a shopkeeper. It is 
an acknowledged fact, that gentlemen of estates generally require 
those articles which the traders esteem as cash goods; and is it not 
most commonly the case, that those traders who reside at some dis- 
tance from the city, could have sold all such goods which they dispose 
of on a credit /or cash, before they can replenish? We speak of those 
who do.not keep heavy stocks, though, perhaps, it might be appli- 
cable in some cases; but is it not a matter worthy of examination, if 
an unforced and natural busmess, effected with cash, or short credit, 
does not produce, ultimately, more actual gain, than that which is 
more extended, and on long and unlimited credits? Those who have 
been in trade a great number of years, can, perhaps, answer this ques- 
tion satisfactorily. 

We shall close this chapter with an extract from Mr. Williams' 
Almanack, for 1826, published at Utica, which we think is not too old 
to be forgotten; hoping our readers will not be too unsavoury in 
their comments on what has been already advanced. 

^^ Hints to jyiechanics. Avoid giving long credits, even to your best 
customers. A man who can pay easily,will not thank you for the de- 



TRADESMAN'S GUIDE. 163 

lay; and a slad:, doubtful paymaster is not too valuable a customer to 
dun sharply and seasonably. A fish may as well attempt to live with- 
out water, or a man without air, as a mechanic without punctuality 
and promptness in collecting and paying his debts. It is a mistaken 
and ruinous policy to attempt to keep on and get business by delaying 
collections. When you lose a slack paymaster from your books, you 
only lose the chance of losing your money — and there is no man whoi 
pays more money to lawyers than he who is least prompt in collecting 
for himself.. 

"Take care how you agree to pay money for your stock, your pro- 
visions, your rent, or your fuel, and take dog skins for your work. 
One hand must wash the other, as poor Richard says, or both will go 
to jail dirty. Every man's trade ouglit to bring him money enough 
to pay all demands against him: and no man can stand it long, who 
does not get money enough from his business to pay the cash expen- 
ses of carrying it on.'* 

CHAPTER XXXII. 

COLOURING SPIRITS. 

Colouring Brandy. The art of colouring spirits owes its rise to 
observations on foreign brandies. A piece of French brandy that hasi 
acquired by age a great degree of softness and ripeness, is observed 
at the same time to have acquired a yellovv-ish brown colour; and henco 
our distillers have endeavoured to imitate this colour in such spirits as 
are intended to pass for French brandy. And in order to this a great 
variety of experiments have been made on various substances, in or- 
derto discover a direct and sure method of imitating this colour to per- 
fection. But in order to do this it is necessary to know from whence 
the French brandies themselves acquire their colour, for, till we have 
made this discovery, it will be in vain to attempt an imitation; because, 
if we should be able to imitate exactly the colour, which is indeed no 
difficult task, the spirit will not stand the test of different experiments, 
unless the colour in both be produced from the same ingredient. This 
being undeniably the case, let us try to discover this mighty secret, 
the ingredient from whence the French brandy acquires its colour. 
We have already obsen-ed, that this colour is only found in such bran- 
dies as have acquired a mellow ripeness by age; it is therefore not giv- 
en it by the distiller, but has gained it by lying long in the cask; con- 
sequently the ingredient from whence this colour is extracted, is no 
other than the wood of the cask, and the brandy in reality is become a 
dilute tincture of oak. The common experiment used to prove the 
genuineness of French brandy proves that this opinion is well founded. 
The experiment is this: they pour into a glass of brandy a few drops 
of a solution of calcined vitriol of iron in a diluted spirit of sulphur, or 
any other mineral acid, and the whole turns of a blue colour, in the 
same manner as we make ink of a tincture of galls and vitriol. Since, 
therefore, the colour of French brandies is acquired from the oak of 
the cask, it is not difficult to imitate it to perfection. A small quan- 
tity of the extract of oak, or the shaving of that wood, properly digest- 
ed, will furnish us with a tincture capable of giving the spirit any de- 
gree of colour required; but it must be re'Twei^beted, tliat a« t!i<5 tiirc-: 



164 THE ARTIST AND 

ture is extracted from the cask by the brandy, that is alcohol and wa- 
ter, it is necessary to use both, in extracting the tincture, for each of 
these menstriiums dissolve different parts of the wood. Let there- 
fore, a sufficient quantity of oak shavings be digested in strong spirits 
wine and also, at the same time, other oak shavings be digested in 
water: and v/hen the liquors have acquired a strong tincture from the 
oak, let both be poured ofi' from the shavings into different vessels, 
and both placed over a gentle fire till reduced to the consistence of 
treacle. In thJs condition let the two extracts be intiriiately mixed to- 
gether; which may be dene effectually by adding a siaali quantity of 
loaf sugar, in fine powder, and v.ell rubbing the v.iiole together. By 
this means aliquid essential extract of oak will be procured, and al- 
ways ready to be used as occasion shall require. 

There are other methods in use for colouring brandies; but the best 
besides the extract of oak above mentioned, is common treacle and 
burnt sugar. The treacle gives the spirits a fine colour nearly re- 
sembling that of French brandies; but as its colour is but dilute, a 
large quantity must be used; this is not hov.'ever attended M'ith any 
bad consequences, for notvvithstanding the spirit is really vv^eakened 
by this addition, yet the bubble proof, the general criterion of spirits, 
is greatly mended by the tenacity imparted to them by the treacle. 
The spirit also acquires fi-om this mixture, a sv.'eetish or luscious taste, 
and a fulness in the mouth, both of which properties render it very 
agreeable to the palates of the common people, Vvho are in fact, the 
principal consumers of these spirits. A much smaller quantity of burnt 
sugar than of.treacle will be sufficient for colouring the same quantity 
of spirits: the taste is also very diffisrent; for, instead of the sweetness 
imparted by the treacle, the spirit acquires from the burnt sugar, an 
agreeable bitterness, and by that m.eans recommends itself to nicer 
palates, which are ofiended with a luscious spirit. The burnt sugar is 
prepared by dissolving a proper quantity of sugar in a little water, and 
scorching it over the me till it acquires a black colour. Either of the 
above ingredients, treacle or burnt sugar, will nearly imitate the genu- 
ine colour of the French brandies, but neither of them will succeed 
Y.'hen put to the test of the vitriolic solution. 

CHAPTER XXXIII. 
DISTILLATION, &c. 

By the distillation of spirits is to be understood the art by which all 
inflammable spirits, brandies, rum, arracs, and the like, are procured 
from vegetable substances, by the means of a previous fermentation, 
and a subsequent treatment of the ferm.ented liquor by the alembic or 
hot still, with its proper worm and refrigeratory. But as it is impos- 
sible to extract vinous spirits from any vegetable subject without fer- 
mentation; and previous to this, brewing is often necessary, it will 
be requisite to consider these operations. 

To extract spirits is to cause such an action by heat, as to cause 
them to ascend in vapour from the bodies which detain them. If this 
heat be natural to bodies, so that the operation be made without any 
adventitious means, it is called fermentation, v.bich will be hereafter 
explained; if it be produced by fire or other heating power in which 



TRA©ESBIAK's GBiOE. 166 

the alembic is placed, it is called digestion, or distillation; digestion, if 
the heat only prepares the materials for distillation of their spirits; and 
distillation when the action is of sufficient efficacy to cause them to as- 
cend in vapour and distil. This heat is that which puts the insensible 
parts of a body, whatever it be, into motion, divides them, and causes 
a passage for the spirits enclosed herein, by disengaging them from 
the phlegm, and the earthy particles by v/hich they are enclosed. Dis- 
tillation considered in this point, is not unworthy the attention and 
countenance of the learned. This art is of infinite extent: whatever 
the whole earth produces, Howers, fruits, seeds, spices, aromatic and 
vulnerary plants, odoriferous drugs, &c. are its objects, and come un- 
der its cognizance; but it is generally confined to liquids cf taste and 
smell, and to the simple and spirituous waters of aromatic and vulnera- 
ry plants; with regard to its ^atility, we shall omit saying any thing here, 
as sutHcient proofs of it will be given in some of the articles respect- 
ing it. 

Of Brewing in order to the Production of Infimnmahle Spirits. By 
brewing is meant the extracting a tincture from some vegetable sub- 
stance, or dissolving it in hot v/ater, by which means it becomes pro- 
per for a vinous fermentation; a solution, or fermentable tincture of 
this kind may be procured, with proper management, from any vege- 
table substance, bat the more readily and totally it dissolves in the 
fluid, the better it is fitted for fermentation^ and the larger its produce 
of spirits. All inspissated vegetable juices therefore, as sugar, honey, 
treacle, manna, &c. are very proper for this use, as they totally dis- 
solve in water, forming a clear and uniform solution: but malt, from 
its cheapness, is generally preferred in England; th6ugh it but imper- 
fectly dissolves in hot water. The worst sort is commonly chosen 
for this purpose, and the tincture without the addition of hops, or the 
trouble of boiling it, is directly cooled and fermented. But in order 
to brew with malt to the greatest advantage, the three following par- 
ticulars should be carefully attended to: 1. The subject should be 
well prepared, that is, it should be justly malted and well ground; for 
if it be too little malted, it will prove hard and ffinty, and consequent- 
ly, only a small part of it dissolve in the water, and on the other hand, 
if too much malted, a great part of the finer particles or fermentable 
matter will be lost in the operation. With regard to grinding, the 
malt should be reduced to a kind cf coarse meal, for experience has 
shown, that by this means the v/nole substance of the m.alt may, 
through the whole process, continue mixed with the tincture, and be 
distilled with it; whereby a larger quantity of spirit will be obtained, 
and also great part of the trouble, time and expense in brewing saved. 
This secret depends upon thoroughly mixing or briskly agitating the 
meal, first in cold water, and then in hot, and repeating the agitation 
after the fermentation is finished, when the thick turbid wash must be 
immediately committed to the still. And thus the two operations of 
brewing and fermenting may very commodiously be reduced to one, 
to the great advantage of the distiller. The second particular to be at- 
tended to, is that the water be good, and properly applied. Rain water 
is the best adapted to brewing, for it not only extracts this tincture of 
the malt better than any other, but it also abounds in fermentable parts, 
whereby the operation is quickened, and the yield of the spirit increas- 



166 THE ARTIST AND 

ed. The next to that of rain, is the water of rivers and lakes, particu- 
larly such as wash any large tract of a fertile country, or receive the 
sullage of populous tov/ns. But whatever water is used, it must stand 
in a hot state upon the prepared malt, especially if judicious distillers 
sho -Id always take care to have their wash sufficiently diluted, they 
would find their spirits the purer for it. 

With regard to the fire, it may be easily kept regular, by a constant 
attendance, and observing never to stir it hastily, or throw on fresh 
fuel; and the stirring the liquor in the still is to be effected by means 
of a paddle, or bar kept in the liquor, till it just begins to boil, which is 
the thne for luting on the head, and after which there is no great dan- 
ger, but from the improper management of the fire; this is the com- 
mon way; but it is no easy matter to hit the exact time; and the doing 
of it, either too late or to soon, is attended" with great inconvenience, 
so that several have discovered other methods, some put more solid 
bodies into the still with the wash; others place some proper matter at 
the bottom and sides of the still, which are the places where the fire 
acts with the greatest force. The use of the paddle, would however, 
answer better than either of thesj methods, could it be continued du- 
ring the whole time the still is working; and this may be done by the 
following method; let a short tube of iron or copper be soldered in 
the centre of the still head, and let a cross bar be placed below in the 
same head, with a hole in the middle corresponding to that at the top; 
thi:pugh both these, let an iron pipe be canied down in the still, and 
let an iron rod be passed through this, with w^ooden sweeps at its end; 
this rod may be continually worked by a wrench at the slill head, and 
the sweeps will continually keep the bottom and sides scraped clean, 
the interstices of the tube being all the time well crammed v^ith tow, 
to prevent any evaporation of the spirit. The same effect may in a 
great measure be produced, by a less laborious method, namely, by 
placing a parcel of cylindrical sticks lengthwise, so as to cover the 
whole bottom of the still, or by throwing in a loose4)arcel of faggot 
sticks at a venture, for the action of the fire below moving the liquor, 
at the same time gives motion to the sticks, making them act continu- 
ally like a parcel of stirrers upon the bottom and sides of the still, 
which might if necessary be furnished with buttons and loops, to pre- 
vent them from starting. Some also use a parcel of fine hay laid up- 
on the loose sticks, and secured down by two cross poles, laid from 
side to side, and in the same manner fastened down with loops. Care 
is to be taken in this case not to press the hay against the sides of the 
still, for that would scratch nearly as soon as the wash itself; but the 
sticks never will; these are simple, but effectual contrivances, and 
in point of elegance, they may be improved at leisure. 

There is another inconvenience attending the distillation of malt 
spirit, which is, when all the bottoms or gross mealy feculence is put 
into the still along with the liquor, the thinner part of the wash going 
off in the form of spirit, the mealy mass grows by degrees, more and 
tnore stiff, so as to scorch towards the latter part of the operation; the 
best method of remedying this, is to have a pipe, with a stop cock, lead- 
ing from the upper part of the worm tub into the still, so that upon a 
half or a qu|irter turn, it may continually supply little a stream of hot 
water, in the same proportion as the spirit nms off, by which means the 



tradesman's GL'tUE. 167 

danger of scorching is avoided, an^me operation at the same time, 
not in the least retarded. 

In Holland, the malt distillers work all their wash thick, with the 
whole body of meal among it, yet they are so careful in keeping their 
stilus clean, and so regular and nice in the management of their fires, 
that though they use no artifice at all on this head, only to charge the 
still, while it is hot and moist, they very rarely have the misfortune to 
scorch, except now and then in the depth of winter. When such an ac- 
cident has once happened in a still, they are very careful to scrape, 
scrub and scour off the remains of the burnt maiter, otherwise they 
find the same accident liable to happen again in the same place. But 
beyond all other methods in use on this occasion, would be the v/ork- 
ing the stills, not by a dry heat, but in a balneum mariae, which might 
be possibly contrived by the basin being large and capable of working 
a great many stills at once, so as to be extremely worth the proprietor's 
attention in all respects. Another requisite to be observed is, that 
the water in the worm tub be kept cool; this may be effected by plac- 
ing in the middle of the tub a wooden pipe or gutter, about three 
inches square within, reaching from the top nearly to the bottom. 
By this contrivance cold water may, as often as necessary, be con- 
veyed to the bottom of the warm tub, and the hot water at the top 
forced either over the sides of the tub, or, what is better, through a 
leaden pipe of a moderate size, called a waste pipe, soldered into the. 
top of the tub, and extended to the gutter formed to carry tiway the 
water. 

Hoiv to choose good Malt. Malt is chosen by its sweet smell,mellow 
taste, full flower, round body and thin skin; there are two sorts in gener- 
al use, the pale and the brov/n. The former is more generally used in 
gentlemen's houses and private families, the latter in public brew hou- 
ses, as seeming to go further.and make the liquor liigher coloured. Oth- 
ers again mix one third brown with two thirds pale; but this depends 
upon the liking of the drinkers. The sweetest malt is that which is 
dried with coak or cinders. In grinding it, see that the mill be clean 
from dust, cobwebs, &c. Set it so as to crush every grain, without 
grinding it to powder; for you had better have some small grains slip 
through untouched, than to have the whole ground too small, which 
will cause it to take together, so that you cannot get the goodness out 
of it. 

Hops. Hops are chosen by their bright green colour, sweet smell 
and clamminess when rubbed between the hands. 

Water for Brewing. Water out of rivers or rivulets is best, except 
polluted by the melting of snow or land water from clay on ploughed 
lands. Snow water will take near one-fifth part more of malt to make 
the beer good. If you have no river water, a pond that has a bottom 
not over muddy, and is fed by a spring, will do; for the sun will soften 
and rarify it. Very hard water drawn from a deep well into a wide 
cistern or reservoir, and exposed to the air or sun, in two or three days 
has been brewed with success, by the addition of malt. Rain water 
comes next to river for brewing. In short, all water that will raise a 
lather with soap, is good for brewing. 

Brewing Vessels. To a copper that holds thirty-six gallons, the 
mash tun ought to be at least large enough to contain six bushels of 



16S THE ARTIST AND 

malt, and the copper of iiquof^Snd room for mashing or stirring lU 
The under back coolers and vv-orking tuns, may be rather fitted to the 
convenience of the room, than to a particular size, for if one vessel be 
not sufficient to hold your liquor, you may take a second. 

Of what is 'procured by DistillatiGn. By distillation are procured 
spirits, essence, simple waters, and phlegm. Spirits are very difficult 
to be defined. We consider them as the most subtile and volatile parts 
of a body. All bodies, without exception have more or less spirits. 
These parts are an ignited substance, and consequently by their oavd 
nature disposed to violent motion. These volatile particles are more 
or less disposed to separate themselves as the bodies are more or less 
porous, or abound with a greater or less quantity of oil. By the term 
essence, we understand the oleaginous parts of a body. An essential 
oil is found in all bodies, being one of their constituent principles. We 
have observed in all distillations, spirits of wine excepted, a soft unc- 
tuous substance floating on the phlegm; and this substance is oil,which 
we call essence, and this is what we endeavour to extract. Simple 
"Waters are those distilled from plants, flowers, &c. without the help of 
water, brandy, or spirit of wine. These Avaters are commonly odorif- 
erous, containing the odour of the body from whence it is extracted, 
and even exceeds in smell the body itself. Phlegm is the aqueous 
particles of bodies, but whether an active or passive principle, we 
shall leave to the decision of chemists. It is of the last importance to 
a distiller to be well acquainted with its nature. Many mistaking for 
phlegm, several white and coloured drops, vv'hich first fall into the re- 
ceiver, when the stiil begins to v/ork. These hov/ever are often the 
most spirituous particles of the matter in the alembic, and consequent- 
ly ought to be preserved. What has given occasion to this mistake, 
is some humidity remaining in the head, &c. of the alembic. And 
had it been thoroughly wiped, the first drops would have been equally 
bright with any, during the whole operation. 

The following remark deserves attention. In bodies that have been 
digested, the spirits ascend first. Whereas in charges not digested, 
the phlegm ascends before the spirits. The reason of this is very 
plain and natural. In substances previously digested, the action of 
fire no sooner causes the matter in- the alembic to boil, than the spir- 
its, being the most volatile paris, detach themselves, and ascend into 
the head of the alembic. But v-hen the matter to be distilled has not 
undergone a proper digestion, the spirits being entangled in the phlegm, 
are less disposed to ascend till the phlegm itself separates and gives 
them room to fly upwards. The phlegm being aqueous, rises first — 
this is more particularly observable in spices. We are, however, inclin- 
ed to believe, that were the operation performed in an alembic, when 
the head was at a great distance from the surface of the charge, they 
would not ascend high enough to come over the helm, but fall back 
again by their own gravity, and by that means leave the spirits at lib- 
erty to ascend. But in the common refrigeratory alembic this always 
happens. If this observation be not readily admitted, we appeal to ex- 
perience, which we desire may be the test of every thing we advance. 
Another observation which has verified the above assertion by innu- 
merable instances is, that in an extraordinary run of business, when wc 
had not time sufficient to digest the substances, we used to bruise them 



tradesman's guide. 16$ 

'u a mortar; but not withstanding the trituiation, the phlegm fust came 
over and afterwards the spirits. But we desire to be understood, that 
we speak here only of the volatile parts of the plants, not drawn witk 
vinous spirits, but contained in a simple water. 

- Another remark we must add, and which we hope v/ill be acceptable 
to the curious, as it has not yet been made public, though doubtless 
the observation has often occurred to others; it is this: that in mixed 
charges, consisting of flowers, fruits, and aromatic plants put into the 
alembic, without any previous digestion, the spirits of the flowers as- 
cend first; and, notwithstanding the mixture, they contracted nothing 
of the smell or taste of the fruits and plants. Next after the spirits of 
the flowers, those of the fruits ascend, not in the least impregnated 
with the smell or taste of either of the flowers or plants. And in the 
last place the spirits of the plaints distil no less neat than the former. 
Should this appear strange to any one, experience wfli convince him 
of the truth. Another observation we have made on aromatic herbs, is, 
that whether they are or are not digested, or if the spirits or phlegm as- 
cend first, the spirits contain very little of the taste or smell of the plants 
from whence they were extracted; and we have always been obliged 
to put to these spirits a greater or less quantity of the phlegm, in or- 
der to give the spirits we had drawn, the taste of an aromatic^odour of 
the plants, the phlegm containing the greatest quantity of both. This 
observation, we insert as of great use to those who practise distilla- 
tion. 

As the term digestion often occurs in this essay, we cannot avoid 
pointing out its advantages, and even show the necessity of using it in 
several circumstances. Substances are said to be in digestion when they 
are infused in a menstruum over a very slow fire. This preparatioH 
is often necessary in distillation, for it tends to open the bodies, and 
thereby free the spirits from their confinements, whereby they are better 
enabled to ascend. Cold digestions are the best; those made by fire, 
or in hot materials, diminish the quality of the goods, or some part, as 
the most volatile will be lost. In order to procure essences, the 
bodies must be prepared by digestion. It is even of absolute neces- 
sity for extracting the spirits and essences of spices. 

Bodies proper for DisHllaiioii, This article alone might make a 
volume, were a particular enumeration of all its parts made; but as it 
has been already observed, we .shall confine ourselves to the distilla- 
tion of simple and compound waters. If we acquit ourselves to the 
satisfaction of 'the public, we shall enjoy the pleasure of having treated 
on one part entirely new: and the only one, indeed, that has been over- 
looked. The bodies proper for distillation, are flowers, fruits, seeds, 
spices and aromatic plants. By distillation and digestion, we extract 
the colour and smell of flowers, in simple waters and essences. We 
extract from fruits, at least from somie,. colour, taste, &c. From ar- 
omatic plants the distiller draws Spirits, essences, simple and com- 
pound waters. From spices are procured essences, or in the language 
of the chemist, oils and perfumes, and also pure spirits. From seeds 
or berries are drav/n simple waters, pure spirits, and from some, a* 
those of anise, fennel and juniper, oil. The colour of flowers is ex- 
tracted by infusion and likewise by digestion in brandy or spirits of 
wine; tlie smell is extracted by distillation; the simple water with 
X 



170 THE ARTIST AND 

brandy or spirits of wine. WhEi,t is extracted of the colour of flower^ 
by infusion in water, by a gentle heat or by digestion in brandy or spir- 
its of wine, is called, in the distiller's phrase, tincture of flowers. The 
colour of fruits is extracted in the same manner, either by infusion or 
digestion, their taste is also procured by the same processes. But 
let it be observed that the time of these operations must be limited; 
for otherwise the fruit, after fermentation, w ould render it acid. The 
taste is also extracted by distillation in spirits of wine. From aromat- 
ic plants, are extracted by the alembic, pure spirits, odours, simple 
waters, but these require different methods of distillation. The first 
by w^ater or brandy only, the second by rectified spirit, which will give 
them the greatest excellency they are capable of receiving. 

The plants themselves with their flowers may also be distilled, 
which is still better. From spices are drawn spirits and oily or spirit- 
uous quintessences. The spirits are drawn by brandy, or spirits of 
wine, with very little water; the oils are distilled per descensum; and 
the spirituous quintessences by pounding the spices, and after infus- 
ing them in spirits of wine, decanting it gently by inclination. From 
seeds are extracted simple waters, spirits and oils. Very few of the 
first and last spirits being what is generally extracted from seeds and 
berries. Some distillers, through a notion of frugahty, distil seeds 
with water, but their liquors are not to be compared with those which 
are distilled with spirits. When oils are drav/n from seed, the opera- 
tion is performed either by the balneum marise, or vapour bath. 

Anise Seed Cordial. Take of anise seed bruised two pounds, proof 
spirit twelve and a half gallons, water one gallon; draw off ten gallons 
with a moderate heat. 

This water should never be reduced below proof, because the large 
quantity of oil with which it is impregnated, will render the goods 
milky and foul, v.hen brought down below proof. But if there is a 
necessity for this, their transparency may be restored by filtration. 

Peppermint Cordial. Oil of peppermint seventy-five drops, sugar 
one ounce, grind together; add spirits of wine rectified one pint; di- 
lute with spirits of wine rectified ten pints, water ten gallons, and fine 
with alum three drachms. On a similar principle, most cordials can 
be made, though with a little variation in the formula in some cases. 
Taste and the habits of the place are to be consulted. In general, it 
is advisable to filter. 

In dulcifying or sweetening spirits, weigh the sugar, and dissolve it 
in one or more cans of the water, with which the compound is to be 
made up; bruise the sugar, and stir it well, till all is dissolved; then 
empty it into the cask containing the spirits; mixing all together, by 
drawing off several cans by the cock, and emptying them into the 
casks by the bung holes. Now rummage all well together, till they 
are perfectly compounded. Spirits or compounds that are strong, re- 
quire no assistance in settling and becoming clear, but those that are 
weak, must be refined by the addition of some other substance. To 
every hogshead of Geneva or other spirituous compound, put six oun- 
ces powdered alum, previously dissolved in three or four gallons of 
the compounds, stir all well together. In the course of twenty-four 
hours, the whole m\\ be rendered completely clear. It is a good 
practice to leave the bung holes of the casks (containing spirits or 



tradesman's guide. 171 

compounds newly made,) open for several days; this improves their 
flavour, and renders them clear, sooner than they otherwise would be. 

Table salt thrown into the still, in the proportion of six ounces to 
ten gallons of any liquid to be distilled, v.ill greatly improve the fla- 
vour, taste and strength of the spirit. The viscid matter will be fixed 
by the salt, whilst the volatile matter ascends in a state of great puri- 
ty. The flavour of malt spirits is highly improved by putting three 
and a^ half ounces finely powdered charcoal, and four and a half oun- 
ces ground rice, into a quart of spirits, and letting it stand fifteen days, 
frequently stirring it; then let the liquor be strained, and it will be 
found nearly of the same flavour as brandy. 

Raisin Wi-ie. Raisins one hundred weight, water sixteen gallons, 
soak for a fortnight, stirring every day; press, put the liquor in a cask 
with the bung loose, till it has done hissing; then add four pounds of 
brandy and bung up close. Some use little more than half, or two- 
thirds of this quantity of raisins. 

Gooseberry Wine. Ripe berries, bruised, ten gallons, water thirty 
gallons, soak twenty-four hours, strain: to each gallon add two pounds 
of sugar and ferment. 

2. Bruised berries eighty pounds, water ten gallons, soak for a day, 
strain; to each gallon add six pounds of loaf sugar, and ferment. 

3. Juice ten gallons, water twenty gallons, sugar seventy pounds, 
ferment. 

4. Berries one hundred pounds, brown sugar six pounds, water a 
suflicient quantity to fill a fifteen gallon cask; yields a good yellowish 
white, and very transparent wine. 

5. Gooseberries forty pounds, water four gallons, bruise together; 
the next day press out the juice: to every gallon add three pounds of 
sugar; ferment. 

Currant Wine. Red currants seventy pounds, bruised and press- 
ed, brown sugar ten pounds, water a sufficient quantity to fill up a fif- 
teen gallon cask; yields a pleasant red wine, rather tart, but keeping 
well. 

2. White currants one sieve, red currants one gallon; press. To 
each gallon of juice, add three gallons of water, to ten gallons of 
liquor add thirty pounds of sugar and ferment; when you bung it up, 
add two pounds of brandy to each ten gallons of wine. 

3. Juice eleven quarts, that is, the produce of one sieve, sugar twen- 
ty pounds, water a sufficient quantity to fill up a nine gallon cask, 
ferment, and when it has done working, add four pounds of brandy; 
for a half hogshead use three sieves of currants, sugar three-fourths of 
a hundred weight, brandy one gallon. 

Black Currant Wine: Berries twenty pounds, brandy two to four 
pounds, water twelve to fourteen gallons, yeast two spoonfuls, fer- 
mented for eight days, then bottled and well corked; yields a pleasant, 
rather vinous, cooling hquor of a purple colour; or they may be made 
into wine like the common currants; by the first process the wine is 
dark purple, rather thick, but good. 

London Porter. For five barrels: malt eight bushels, a sufficient 
quantity of water, mash at twice; add in the boiling, hops eight to 
twelve pounds, treacle six pounds, liquorice root eight pounds, moist 
sugar sijiteen pounds, one half of which is usualty made into essential 



172 THE ARTIST AND 

bhise and the other half into colour, cappiciim four drachms, Spanish 
liquorice two ounces, hnseed one ounce, cinnamon two drachms, head- 
ing two drachms; cool, add one to two gallons of yeast v/hen it has 
got a good head, cleanse it with three ounces of ginrrer; coculus indi- 
eus one ounce; then barrel and finish the working; fine with isinglass. 
The public brewers use a mixture of pale amber, and brovrn malt, but 
amber alone is best for private families. 

Six pounds of sugar is esteemed equal in strength, and one p»3und 
eoriander seed in intoxicating power, to a bushel of mah; the sugar 
employed is burnt to colour the beer instead of brown malt, and it has 
been proposed to use roasted coffee for the purpose. The other sub- 
stances are merely to flavour the liquor and may be varied at pleasure. 

The desire to evade the duty on malt in England produced the discov- 
ery of its being necessary to malt only one-third of the corn, as this 
proportion will convert the other into its ov.n nature during the pro- 
cess. 

Ginger Beer. Three pounds of lump sugar, ten ounces bruised gin- 
ger, one ounce cream tartar, lem.ons number four, pour on them four 
gallons boiling v.ater, add eight ounces of yeast, work for four days, 
then bottle in half pints, and tie the corks down. 

2. Six pounds of moist sugar, five ounces of ginger, tv.o ounces of 
©ream tartar, lemons number jour, eight ounces of yeast, seven gal- 
lons of water, work tv.o or three days, strain, add one pound of bran- 
dy, bung very close, and in fourteen days bottle it; a cooling efterves- 
eent drink in summer. 

Orange Wine. Sugar twenty three pounds, water tr-n gallons, 
boil, clarify with the white of six eggs, pour the boiling hquor, upon 
the parings of one hundred oranges; add the strained juice of these 
oranges, and six ounces of yeast, let it work for three or four days 
then strain it into a barrel, hung it up loosely: in a month add four 
pounds of brandy; and in three months it v.ill be fit to drink. 

Wines, tnny also be made of blackberries and oAer English fruits 
upon the same principle. Those mentioned are the methods general- 
ly employed, but most persons have peculiar ways of proceeding, 
which may indeed be varied to infinity, and so as to produce at pleas- 
ure a sweet or dry wine; the sweet not being so thoroughly ferment- 
ed as the dry. The addition of brandy destroys the proper flavour 
of the wine, and it is better to omit it entnely (except for elder and 
port wine, whose flavour is so strong that it cannot well be injured) 
and to increase the strength by augmenting the raisins or sugar. 
In general the must for wines ought to be made of six pounds of rai- 
sins, or four pounds of sugar, to the gallon, allowing for that contain- 
ed in the fruit. 

South am jiton Port, Cider thirty six gallons, elder v/ine eleven 
gallons, brandy five gallons, damson wine eleven gallons, M. 

English J^lcdeira. Pale malt ground four bushels, boihng water 
forty-four gallons, infuse, strain; of this wort, while warm, take twen- 
ty-four gallons, sugar candy fourteen pounds; when dissolved, add 
two pounds of yeast; ferment; keep scimming off the yeast; when 
the fermentation is nearly finished, add two gallons and a half of rai- 
sin wine, brandy, port wirie, each two gallons; bung it down for six or 
nine months. A second infusion of wort mav be brewed for beer. 



tradesman's guide. 173. 

Reciijication, The principal business is to separate the spirit from 
the essential oil the spirit contains. Care should be taken in the first 
distillation; the spirit, especially malt spirit should be drawn by a gentle 
fire, which will keep a great part of the essential oil from mixing with 
the spirit, as it is abundantly proved easier to keep asunder than to sep- 
arate when mixed, as this is almost impossible. To draw low wines the 
best method of separating the oil from the spirit is by re-distillation 
and percolation. To rectify low wines, they should be put into a tall 
body, or alembic, and gently distilled in balneum marios; by this m.eans 
both the oil and the phlegm will remain in the body, but if the spirit 
should be found after this operation, to contain some of the essential 
oil, it must be let down with fair water and re-distiiled in. the same 
manner. And thus it may be brought to any degree of purity, espe- 
cially if in working, the spirit l/e suffered to fall into a proper quantity 
of the balneum piariiE. But it must be remembered, that it is much 
more difficult to cleanse alcohol or proof spirit, than low wines, be- 
cause the oil is more intimately mixed with the two former than with 
the latter; this oil may however be separated from proof spirit, &c. 
by the method already proposed, especially if it be previously filtrated 
through paper, thick flannel, sand, stone, &c. But this method, 
though it effectually answers the intention, is generally rejected by dis- 
tillers, because of the slov/ness of the opertition, and others substitu- 
ted in its stead; though instead of freeing the spirit from the oil, they 
only abolish the natural flavour of the spirit, and make a more inti- 
mate mixture between the particles of the spirit and those of the es- 
sential oil. It is impossible to enumerate all the methods practised 
by distillers, as almost every one pretends to have a secret nostrum 
for this purpose. The principal methods in use for rectifying malt 
spirits are however reducible to three, namely, by fixed alka- 
line salts, by acid spirits mixed with alkaline salts, and by saline 
bodies and flavouring additions. The method of rectifying by al- 
kaline salts is thus performed. To every piece of proof spirit 
aTdd fourteen pounds dry salt of tartar, fixed nitre, or calcined tartar; 
lute on the head, and distil by a gentle heat, but be careful to leave 
out the faints. By this method a large proportion of the fetid oil will be 
left in the still, and what comes over with the spirit will be greatly at- 
tenuated. But this operation is generally performed in a very differ- 
ent manner; for instead of distilling the spirit in a gentle and equable 
manner, the still is worked in its full force; by which means the oil, 
which should have remained in the still, is driven over and intimately 
mixed with the spirit, and consequently the whole operation frustrated, 
and the spirit rendered much harder to cleanse than it was before. 
But even when the operation is performed according to the rules of 
art, it is far from being perfect, for it is well known that part of the fixed 
salts become volatile in the operation, passes over the helm, and inti- 
mately mixes with the essential oil still contained in the spirits; by this 
means the oil becomes more perfectly united with the spirits, and con- 
sequently much harder to be separated by repeated distillations: nor 
is this all, for the still being worked in its full force, the bitter oil of 
the malt formed into a kind of liquid soap in the still, by means of the 
alkaline salt, is brought over the helm with the faints and suffered to 
iTiix with the spirit, whereby it is rendered almost as nauseous and ill 



174 THE ARTIST AND 

tasted as before the operation. Besides, if this operation were per- 
formed in its utmost perfection, it would never answer the intention, 
for the alkahne salt destroys the vinos ity of the spirit, and consequent- 
ly deprives it of one of its most valuable properties. Our distillers 
are well acquainted with this defect in the operation, and endeavour to 
supply it by an addition of acids. This is what we call the second 
method by alkalies and acids. 

The operation of rectifpng by the method of fixed alkalies and acids 
is the same as that above described: the spirit is drawn over from fix- 
ed alkalies as before, but in order to mortify the alkali in the spirit, and 
restore its vinosity, a proper quantity of some acid spirit is added. 
Various kinds of acids are used on this occasion, but principally those 
of the mineral kind, because of their cheapness; as the oil of vitriol, 
spirit of nitre, oil of sulphur, &c. we would however caution young dis- 
tillers from bein,^ too busy with these corrosive acids. The sulphurous 
spirit of vitriol, dulcified spirit of nitre, or Mr. Boyle's acid spirits of 
wine well rectified will much better answer their purpose. 

The third method of rectification, is ^hat by saline bodies and fia- 
vouring ingredients. There is no difierence in the operation, between 
this and the tv/o foregoing methods: lixed alkaline salts, common salt 
depreciated, or dried calcined vitriol, sandiver, alum, &c. is put into 
the still with the low v/ines and the spirit drawn off as before. When 
the quantity is drawn off, the flavouring ingredients are added to give 
the spirit the flavour intended. But as the spirit is not by this means 
rendered sufficiently pure, the disagreeable flavour of the spirit gene- 
rally over|30wers that of the ingredients, v/hereby the v/hole intention is 
either destroyed, or a compound flavour produced, very different from 
that intended. Some distillers, instead of alkaline salts, use quick- 
lime in rectifying their malt spirit: this ingredient cleanses and de- 
phlegmates the spirit considerably; but like that rectified from all alka- 
line salts, it requires an alkaline disposition, and also a nidorous fla- 
vour. Acids, therefore, are as necessary to Joe mixed with those 
spirits rectified vrith an alkaline salt. If chalk, calcined and well pu- 
rified bones of animals, &c. w^ie used instead of quicklime, the spir- 
it would have much less alkaline or nidorous flavour; and conse- 
quently, the flavouring ingredients might be added to it with more 
success than can be expected from a spirit rectified from alkaline 
salts. But perhaps if neutral salts were used instead of the alkahne 
ones, the spirit might be rendered pure without contracting an alka- 
line flavour. Soluble tartar might be used for this purpose, though 
the spirit acquires a little saponaceous flavour. 

Dr. Cox has mentioned another method for this purpose; namely, 
to deprive the volatile salts of their oil, by rendering them neutral with 
spirit of salt, and afterwards subliming them with salt of tartar. The 
acid may be varied if the spirit of salt should not be found so well 
adapted to the purpose as could be wished; but fine dry sugar seems 
the best adapted to the purpose of rectifying these spirits; as it readily 
unites ^vith the essential oil, detains and fixes it, without imparting any 
urinous, alkaline or other nauseous flavour to the spirits rectified upon. 

We shall conclude this artice \\dth remarking that there is no other 
method of rectifying to perfection, besides what is first laid down, viz. 
by gentle distillation: but then it must be remembered, that the whole 



tradesman's guide. 175 

process must be of a piece, viz. that the first distillation from the wash 
must be performed in a gentle manner, for otherwise the essential 
oil will be so intimately blended M-ith the spirit as not to be easily sep- 
arated by re-distillation. Another good property attending this method 
is its universality; all kinds of spirits, from whatever ingredients ex- 
tracted, require rectification; and this is adapted to all kinds. 

Fermentation. The tincture, or the wash, as distillers call it, be- 
ing prepared as you will find described under the head of Breiving in 
order to the prockiction of infiammable spirits, it is next to be fer- 
mented; for without this operation no vinous spirit can be produced. 
By fermentation is meant that intestine motion performed by the in- 
strumental efficacy of water, whereby the salt, oil, and earth of a fer- 
mentable subject are separated, attenuated, transposed, and again col- 
lected, and recomposed in a particular manner. The doctrine offer- 
mentation is of the greatest use, and should be well understood by 
every distiller, as it is the very basis of the art, and perhaps, if more 
attended to, a much purer spirit, as well as a greater quantity of it 
might be procured, from the same materials than at present. We 
shall therefore lay down a concise theory of fermentation, before we 
proceed to deliver the practice. 

Every fermentable subject is composd of salt, oil, and a subtile earth; 
but these particles are so small, that when asunder, they are imper- 
ceptible to the senses; and therefore, when mixed with an aqueous 
fluid, they leave it transparent; neither have fermentable bodies any 
taste, except that of sweetness. These particles are composed of salt, 
oil and earth, intimately mixed in an actual cohesion, connexion and 
union; and therefore, when any one of these principles too much 
abounds in any subject, so that an intimate union is prevented, the 
whole efficacy of the fermentation is either stopped or impaired, or at 
least limited to one certain species. This equal connexion of salt, oil 
and earth, into a single compound particle, forms a corpuscle soluble 
m water; or to speak more philosophically, this compound corpuscle 
is, by means of its sahne particles, connected with the aqueous corpus- 
cles, and moved up and down with them. But when these corpuscles 
are not thus connected with the water, a numberof them join together, 
and forin either a gross or a loose chatTy and spungy matter. When 
these compound particles are diluted with a small quantity of aqueous 
fluid, they feel slippery, clammy, and unctuous to the touch, and afiect 
the taste with a kind of rosy sweetness; and when a proper quantity of 
the fluid is added, a commotion is presently excited, and afterwards a 
subtile separation. This commotion and separation first begins in the 
whole substance, for before the addition of water, the subject may re- 
main in dry, sohd, and large pieces, as in malt, sugar, &c. which be- 
ing reduced to powder, each grain thereof is an agreement of many 
compound corpuscles; then being put into water, dissolve and sepa- 
rately float therein, till at length they become so small as to be invisi- 
ble, and only thicken the consistence of the liquor. 

These corpuscles being thus separated from one another, there next 
ensues a separation of their component particles; that is, the salt, the 
oil and the earth are divided by the interposition of aqueous particles. 
The first commotion is no more than a bare solution; for the saline 
particles being easily dissolvable in water, they are immediately laid 



176 TH.E ARTIST ASH 

hold of by tiie aqueous particles, and carried about with them. But 
the succeeding separation or fermentative motion is a very different 
thing; for by this, the saline particles are divided from those of oil and 
eaith, partly by the impulse of the others in their motion, and partly by 
the force of the aqueous particles, which are now continually meeting 
and dashing against them. This motion is performed by the water, as 
a fluid or aggregate of an infinite number of particles in actual and 
perpetual motion, their smallness being proportionable to that of the 
fermenting corpuscles, and their motion, or constant susceptibility of 
motion, by the warmth and motion of the air, disposing them to move 
other subtile moveable corpuscles also. The certain agreement of 
iigure or size, between the aqueous particles, and those of tiie salt in 
the fermentable subject, tends greatly to increase this commotion: for 
by this means they are readily and very closely connected together; 
and move almost like one and the same compound corpuscle, while 
the water is not at all disposed to cohere immediately vvith either the 
oil or earth; and thus an equal concussion is excited in the compound 
corpuscles of the fermentable subject vvhich concussion at length 
strikf^s out the saline particles, loosens the others, and finally produ- 
ces a separation of the original connexion of the subject. 

An aqueous fluid, therefore, is the true and indeed the only instru- 
ment for procuring a fermentable motion in these compound corpus- 
cles of the subject, for were an oily fluid poured upon any fermenta- 
ble subject, no vinous fermentation would ensue; as the oil could nei- 
ther give a sufhcient impulse on the compound corpuscles which are 
grosser than its own constituent particles, nor divide the oily or saline 
particles of the subject, from their connexion with the others, which 
detain, and as it were, envelop or defend them from its action. The 
compound corpuscles of the fermentable subject being affected by the 
perpetual motion of the particles of the aqueous fluid, a proper degree 
of motion is necessary, or that the particles move with a proper de- 
gree of velocity, which depends on external heat. A considerable de* 
gree of cold, indeed, will not absolutely prevent fermentation, though 
it will retard it; and a boiling heat will prevent it still more. A tepid 
or middle degree of heat, between freezing and boiling is therefore the 
most proper for promoting and quickening the operation. The ad- 
mission of air, also, though not of absolute necessity, yet greatly pro- 
motes and quickens the action, as being a capital instrument in put- 
ting in a proper degree of motion the oily particles of the subject; but 
whilst the air thus contributes to hasten the efiect, it causes at the 
same time by its activity, some remarkable alterations in the oily par- 
ticles; for it not only moves but absolutely dissolves and displaces 
them from their original connexions; and thus carries them off itself 
from the v/hole mass. And therefore, though the consideration of 
the air does not so properly belong to fermentation in the general, jet 
it does in particular; as having an accidental power to alter every spe- 
cies of this operation, consequently its agency ought to be well under- 
stood, either to procure alterations at pleasure, in the fermenting 
mass, or to prevent or coiTect impending dangers. The oily parti- 
cles thus separated and dissolved by the air, are also elastic, though 
they probably derive that property from their intercourse with the air 
itself, and these being rendered extremely minute. When, therefore. 



tradesman's guide. 177 

an aqueous fluid is added to a fermentable subject, exposed to a tem- 
perate heat, a fermentative struggle immediately arises, the saline part 
of the compound particles being dissolved by the continual intestine 
motion of the water, and carried up and down with it in all directions, 
amidst an infinite number of other particles, as well fermentable as 
aqueous ones, whence by this collision and attrition, the saline parti- 
cles are dissolved and separated from their connexion with the oily 
and earthy. And as the oily particles are the most subtile and elas- 
tic, they would by this means, be throv^'n up to the surface of the li- 
quor, and carried ofi' by the air, were they not closely connected with 
the earthy ones, whose gravity prevents their evaporation, and by comb- 
ing in contact with others of the same kind, form aggregations, and 
sink down with the oily particles to the bottom. 

But before these can form a bulk too large to be supported by the 
water, many of the oily particles are, by their frequent collisions with 
the aqueous fluid, separated from the earthy cne^ and by degrees 
more strongly connected again with the saline ones; whilst on the 
other hand, the same saline particles imbibe some of the earthy ones, 
which being left single upon their separation from the oily particles, 
float about separately in the fluid. And hence proceed the seve- 
ral different consequences of fermentation; namely, 1. From the sep- 
aration of the saliiie particles of the fermentable subject, proceeds the 
tart, saline or acid taste of the liquor wliich is more sensible at first, 
before the liquor is duly composed and settled, or the due arrangement 
and connexion of the saline particles v/ith those of the oily and earthy 
kinds, completed; after which the liquor becomes milder, softer or 
less pungent. 2. From the oily particles being set at liberty, pro- 
ceeds the strong smell of the liquor, and the head or shining skin upon 
the surface. 3. The earthy particles collecting together in clusters, 
cause the fluid to appear turbid, and afterwards a visible, earthy or 
clay like matter, to be precipitated; and some of the earthy parts in 
their motion, arriving at the head or oily skin on the surface cause it 
to thicken, and afterwards taking it down along with it, thus constitute 
the lees which abound in oil. 4. From this new struggle or collision, 
which is productive both of solution and a new connexion in the sa- 
line and earthy corpuscles, proceeds the ebullition in fermentation; 
and lastly, by the same repeated coalihon of the oily with the aqueous 
and saline particles, the inflammable spirit is produced. 

Having thus laid down a concise theory of fermentation, we shall 
now proceed to the practice. The wash being brought to a tepid or 
iuke warm state in the backs, a proper quantity of a good conditioned 
ferment is added; but if the ferment be soiled, it should be previously 
broke into small pieces, and gently thinned, either with the hand, wisp, 
&c. in a little of the tepid liquor. A complete and uniform solution, 
should not be attempted, because that would greatly 'wealien the pow- 
er of the ferment, or destroy its future eiiicacy. The whole intended 
quantity being thus loosely mixed with a moderate portion of the liquor, 
and kept in a tepid state, either by setting it near the fire or othervv'ise, 
and free from tlie too rude commerce of the exlomol air, more of the 
insensibly warm liquor ought to be added, at proper iatorvals, till at 
length the whole quantity is properly set to ^s^orking together, and thus 
by dividing the business into parts, it may much more speedily and 



i7S THE ARTIST ANL> 

effectually be peitormed, than by attempting it all at once. The' 
whole quantity of liquor being thus set at work, secured in a proper 
degree of warmth, and defended from a too free intercourse.of tne ex- 
ternal air, nature itself, as it were, finishes the process, and renders 
the liquor fit for the still. By ferments is meant any substance, which 
being added to any rightly disposed fermentable liquor, will cause it 
to ferment much sooner and faster, than it would of itself, and conse- 
quently render the operation shorter, in contradiction to those abusive- 
ly called so, which only corrects some fault in the liquor, or gives it 
some flavour. Hence, we see, that the principal use of ferments is 
to save time, and make despatch in business, whilst they only occa- 
sionally, and as it were by accident, give a flavour, and increase the 
quantity of spirits. And accordingly, any fermentable liquor, may 
\Wthout the addition of any ferment, by a proper management of heat 
alone, be brought to ferment, and even more perfectly, though much 
slower, than with their assistance. These ferments are in general 
the flowers and faeces of all fermentable liquors, generated and thrown 
to the surface, or deposited at the bottom, either during the act offer- 
mentation or after the operation is finished. Two of these are pro- 
curable in large quantities, and at a small expense: beer yeast and 
wine lees; a prudent and artificial management, or use of which might 
render the business of distillation much more certain and advanta- 
geous. It has been esteemed very difiicuit and a great discourage- 
ment in the business of distillation, to procure a sufficient stock of 
these materials, and preserve them at all times ready for use. The 
M'hole secret consists in dexterously freeing the matter from its super- 
fluous moisture; because in its fluid state, it is subject to a further 
fermentation, which is productive of corruption, in which state it be- 
comes intolerably fetid and cadaverous. The method of exposing 
it to the air till it has acquired a proper consistence, is subject to great 
-inconveniences: and so peculiar and careful management is neces- 
sary, that it rarely succeeds. The best way there^re, is to press it 
very slowly and gradually, in a thick, close and strong canvass bag, 
after the manner of wine lees, by the toil press, till it becomes a kind 
of cake, which though soft, will easily snap; or break between the fin- 
gers. Being reduced to that consistence, and closely packed up in a 
tight cask, it wall remain a long tim^e uncorrupted, preserve its fragran- 
cy, and consequently fit to be used for fermenting the finest liquor. 

The same method is also practicable, and to the same advantage, in 
the flowers of yeast or wine, which maybe thus commodiously import- 
ed from abroad; or if these cannot be procured, others of equal effica- 
ey may be procured from fi-esh wine lees by barely mixing and stirring 
them into a proper v,arm liquor, when the lighter and more volatile 
and active parts of the lees will be thrown to the surface, and may ea- 
sily be taken off" and preserved by the above mentioned method, in 
any desired quantity. And hence, by a very easy process, an inex- 
haustible supply of the most useful ferments may be readily and suc- 
cessively procured, so as to prevent for the future, all occasion of com- 
plaint for the want of them, in the distiller's business. Experience 
has demonstrated, that all ferments aboimd much more in essentials, 
than the liquor which produced them; and consequently, they retain in 
« very high degree,, the smell and flavour of the subject. It is there- 



TnAI)ES3IAN's GUIDE. 179 

fore requisite, before the ferment is applied, to consider what flavour 
is introduced, or what species of ferment is most proper for the liquor. 
The alteration thus caused by ferments, is so considerable as to ren- 
der any neutral fermentable liquor of the same flavour of that which 
yields the ferment. This observation is of much greater moment than 
Avill readily be conceived, for a new scene is hereby opened, both in the 
business of distillation, and others depending upon fermentation. It 
must however be observed, that its benefit does not extend to malt 
treated in the common method; nor to any other subject but what af- 
fords a spirit tolerably pure and tasteless. For otherwise, instead of 
producing a simple, pure, and uniform flavour, it causes a compound, 
mixed, and unnatural one. How far the fine distiller may profit by it, 
well deserves his attention, and whether om* native cider spirit, crab 
spirit, &c. which have very little flavour of their own, may not by this 
artifice, be brought nearly, if not entirely, into the state of some for- 
eign brandies, so highly esteemed, is recommended to experience. It is 
common with distillers, in order to increase tlie quantity of spirit, to give 
it a particular flavour, to improve its vinosity, to add several things t© 
the liquor during the time it is in a state of fermentation, and these ad- 
ditions may properly be reduced to salts, acids, aromatics, and oils. 

All rich vegetable juices, as treacle, honey, &;c. which either want 
a natural acid, have been deprived of it, or contain it in too small a 
quantity, will be greatly improved by adding at the beginning of the 
operation, a small quantity of the vegetable or fine mineral acids, as 
oil of sulphur, glaubers, spirit of salt, juice of lemon, or an aqueous 
solution of tartar. These additions will either give or greatly improve 
the vinous acidity of the subject, but not increase the quantity of the 
spirits; that intention being performed by aromatics and oils. All pun- 
gent aromatics have a surprising quality of increasing the quantity of 
the spirits, as well as in altering or improving the flavour; but their use 
requires that the fermentation should be performed in close vessels, 
and if a large quantity be intended to be added, care must be taken 
not to do it all at once, lest the oiliness of the ingredients should check 
the operation. But if the flavour be the principal intention, they should 
not be added till the operation is nearly finished. After the same man- 
ner a very considerable quantity of any essential vegetable oil may be 
converted into a surprisingly large quantity of inflammable spirit^; but 
great caution is here also necessary, not to drop it too fast, or add too 
large a quantity at a time, which would damp the fermentation, it being 
the surest method of checking, or totally stopping this operation at 
any point of time required. The best method thererefore, of adding the 
oil, so as to avoid all inconveniences, is to rub the oil in a mortar with 
sugar, which the chemists call making an olaesaccharum, by which 
means the tenacity of the oil will be destroyed, and the whole readily 
mix with the liquor, and immediately ferment with it. The distiller would 
do well to consider these observations attentively, as he may thence 
form an advantageous method of increasing the quantity of spirits, and 
at the same time greatly improve their quality and flavour. But in 
order to put these observations in practice, particular regard must be 
had to the containing vessel in which the fermentation is performed, 
the exclusion of the air, and the degree of the external heat or cold. 
With regard to the containing vessel, its purity, and the pr<wision f(»r 



ISO THE ARTIST AND 

rendering it occasionally close, are chiefly to be considered. In cleans- 
ing it, no soap or other linctuons body should be used, for fear of 
checking the fermentation; and for the same reason, all strong alka- 
line lixividiiis shquld be a.voided. Limewater, or a turbid solution of 
quicklime may be employed foj this purpose, without producing any ill 
etTect: it will also be of great service in destroying a prevaihng ace- 
tous salt, which is apt to generate in. the vessels when the warm air 
has free access to them; and tends to prevent the order of fermenta- 
tion, and instead of a wine or wash, produce a vinegar. Special care 
must also be had that no remains of yeast, or cadaverous remains of 
formeri«rmented matters hang about the vessels; which would infect 
whatever should be afterwards put into them, and cannot, without the 
utmost difficulty, be perfectly sweetened and cured. The occasion- 
al closeness of the vessels may, in the large v, a,y, be provided for by 
covers properly adapted; and in the small way, by valves placed in 
light casks. These -\^lves will occasionally give the necessary vent 
to preserve the vessel, during the height of the fermentation; the ves- 
sel otherwise remaining perfectly close, and impervious to the air. It 
is a mistake of a very prejudicial nature in the business of fermenta- 
tion, to suppose that there is an absolute necessity for a free admis- 
sion of the external air: the express contrary is the truth^ and very 
great advantages will be found by practising according to this suppo- 
sition. A constant infiux of the external air, if it does not carry off 
some part of the spirit already generated, yet certainly catches up and 
dissipates the fine subtile or oleaginous and saline particles, whereof 
the spirit is made, and thus considerably lessens the quantity. By a 
close fermentation, this inconvenience is avoided; all air except that 
included in the vessel, being excluded. The whole secret consists in 
leaving a ijioderate space for the air at the top of the vessel unpossess- 
ed by the liquor; when the liquor is once fairly at work, to bung it 
down close, and thus suffered to finish the fermentation without opening 
or giving it any more vent than thatafTorded it by a t>roper valve placed 
in the cask, v/hich however, is not of absolute necessity, v/hen the 
empty space, or rather that possessed by the air, is about one tenth of 
the guage; the artificial air, generated in the operation, being then sel- 
dom suiflicien t to open a strong valve, or at most not to endanger the 
cask. This method may be practised to great advantage by those 
whose business is not very large; but it requires too much time to be 
\ised by the large dealers, who are in a manner forced to admit the free 
air, and thus sustain a considerable loss in their quantity of spirits, 
that the fermentation may be finished in the small time allowed for 
that purpose. It may however be said, that the silent, slow, and al- 
most imperceptible vinous fermentation, is universally the most per- 
fect and advantageous. During the whole course of this operation, 
the vessel should be kept from ail external cold, or considerable beat, 
in an equal, uniform, and moderate temperature. In the winter, stove 
rooms, such as are common in Germany would be very convenient 
for this purpose, the vessel being placed at a proper distance from the 
stove; but at other seasons no particular apparatus is necessary in 
England, or even in the central part of the United States, if the place 
allowed for the business be but well defended from the summer's heat 
and the ill efiects of cold, bleak, northern winds. The operation is 



tradesman's guide. 181 

known to be perfect when the hissing, or small bubbling noise can be 
no longer heard upon applying the ear to the vessel; and also, by the 
liquor itself appearing clear to the eye, and having a pungent sbarp- 
ness on the tongue. And that it may fully obtain these properties and 
be well fitted to yield a pure and perfectly vinous spirit by distillation, 
it should be suffered to stand at rest in a somewhat cooler place, if 
practicable, than that in which it was fermented, till it has thoroughly 
deposited, and cleansed itself of the gross lee, and become perfectly 
transparent, vinous and fragrant, in which state it should be commit- 
ted to the still; and the spirits obtained will not only exceed that ob- 
tained in the common way in quantity, but also in fragrance, pungen- 
cy and vinosity. 

To make Spirits of JVine, Is in England in general obtained from 
grorjid meal, either of wlieat, rye or barley, v,*ith from one-tenth to 
one-third of the same, or another grain, malted and ground and then 
called m.alt spirits; or from treacle, and then called molasses spirits; 
some is made from apples, or cider wash. The fermentation is car- 
ried on quicker and farther, than in brewing, or making cider in order 
that all the sugar in the wash may be converted into spirits and water. 
The infusion of the malt and meal is made so strong, that its specific 
gravity is reduced from 1.083 to 1.14, whereas that for strong ale, is 
generally 1.06, and for small beer, 1.015 to 1.04, and is mixed with 
a large quantity of yeast, added by successive portions, until in about 
ten days, the specific gravity is reduced to 1.002, when it is fit for the 
still. In general, a third part is drawn off at the first stilling, under 
the name of low wines, the specific gravity being about 0.975. 

On re-distilling the low wines, a fiery spirit, of a milky cast, comes 
over first, and is returned into the still; then follows the clear spirit; 
when it begins to grow too watery, the remaining spirit that comes 
over, as long as it will take fire, is kept apart, under the name of 
faints, and mixed with the next parcel of low wines. Instead of these 
trials, the head of the still may have a bulb of a thermometer inserted 
into it, and by observing the temperature of the steam, an accurate 
judgment may be formed of the strength of the spirit that distils over. 

It is computed that one hundred gallons of malt, or corn wash, Mfill 
produce about twenty of spirit, containing about half its weight of wa- 
ter; molasses wash twenty-two gallons ^ cider wash fifteen gallons. 
The best French wines yield from twenty to twenty-five gallons. The 
spirit thus obtained is used for pharmaceutical purposes, mixed with 
water, to separate the oil it contains, and re-distilled several times in 
tall vessels, with a very gentle heat until its specific gravity is reduc- 
ed to 0.82; though that usually sold is only 0.837, at 60° Fahrenheit. 
By distilling spirits of wine with purified pearlashes, salt of tartar, mu- 
riate of lime, or common salt, all previously heated to redness, and 
cooled, its specific gravity may be reduced still lower, even as low as 
0,792, at 68^ Fah. but there is reason to think that it not only parts 
with water, but undergoes some change, or acquires some impregna- 
tion, by these additions, as its taste is altered. This spirits of wine 
from which every particle of water is separated, is called by the Arab- 
ic name of alcohol. 

Of Filtration. Filtration consists in passing liquors through a por- 
/)ns substance in order to free them from those particles vi'hich obscure 



182 THE ARTIST AND 

their brightness. Nolhing is finer than a hquor newly distilleti, but the 
syrup and colouring particles, render it thick and opaque: in order 
therefore to restore their brightness they are filtrated, which is done 
by passing them through sand, paper, cloth, &c. All the attention 
of the distiller in ordinary operations, cannot always prevent some 
aqueous particles from rising with the spirits, either in the beginning 
of the process, in those compositions where they ascend first, or at the 
conclusion when they rise last; as this is almost unavoidable, so it is 
sometimes necessary. 

In distilling flow^ers, or aromatic plants, fresh gathered, the phlegm 
rises first; and this part cannot be taken out of tlie receiver, without 
depriving the spirits of a considierable part of their fragrancy. 

In distilhng spices, their odour being more entangled, will remain in 
the alembic, till part of the phlegm is drawn off. But when instead of 
these substances their quintessence is used, the necessity ceases. 
But the phleirm commonly causing a cloudiness in the liquor, it may 
be rendered tolerably fine by pouring it gently off by inclination, with- 
out the trouble of filtration; the aqueous particles, by their gravity, 
failing to the bottom; but to render it entirely bright and fine, put some 
cotton in a funnel, and pour the liquor through it, by which means the 
aqueous particles will be retained in the cotton. You must however 
remember to cover the top of the funnel, to prevent the most '^volatile 
parts of the spirits from evaporating. 

English Sherry. Loaf sugar thirty-two pounds, sugar candy ten 
pounds, water sixteen gallons, boil; add pale ale wort,- (as for Eng- 
lish Madeira, ) six gallons, yeast one pound; on the. third day add ten 
pounds of stoned raisins, and in another two or three days one gallon 
of brandy; bung it down for four months; draw it off into another 
cask, add one gallon of brandy, and in three months bottle it. Imi- 
tations for foreign wines, for those who wish to make a show above their 
circumstances, but far inferior to our own fruit wines. , 

Elder Wine. Juice of the berries eight gallons, Aater twelve gal- 
lons, brown sugar sixty pounds, dissolve by boiling, add yeast, and 
ferment; then add four pounds of brandy, and bung it up for three 
months: disagreeable when cold, but is m.ulled with allspice and drank 
v/arm in winter time as- a stimulant. 

Ginger Wine. Bruised ginger twelve pounds, water ten gallons; 
boil for half an hour, add twenty-eight pounds of sugar, boil till dissolv- 
ed, then cool, and put the liquor along with fourteen lemons sliced, 
and three pounds of brandy; add a little yeast and ferment. 

White Spruce Beer. To ten gallons of water, put six pounds of 
sugar, four ounces essence of spruce, add yeast, work as in making 
beer, and bottle immediately in half pints. 

JMixed Fruit Wine. White currants three sieves, red gooseberries 
two sieves: these should yield forty pints of juice; to each gallon add 
two gallons of water, sugar three pounds and a half; ferment. 

2. White, red, and black currants, cherries, especially black heart, 
raspberries, of each, pounded, equal quantities. To each four pounds 
of the bruised fruit add one gallon of water, steep for three days, press, 
and to each gallon of liquor add three pounds of yellow sugar; fer- 
ment, and when finished add to each nine gallons two pints of bran- 



tradesman's GUiUE. 183 

dy; if it does not fine soon enough, add half an ounce of isinglass, dis- 
solved in a pint of water, to each nine gallons. 

Cherry Wine. Cherries thirty pounds, moist sugar five pounds, 
water a sufficient quantity to fill a seven gallon cask; ferment. 

Parsnip Wine, may be made by cutting the roots into small, thin 
slices, boiling them in water, pressing out the liquor, and fermenting 
it. This wine, when made strong, is of a rich and excellent quality 
and flavour. 

Metheglin. Honey one hundred pounds, boiling water a sufficient 
quantity to fill a half hogshead or thirty-two gallon cask, stir it well 
for a day or two; add yeast, and ferment. Some boil the honey in the 
water for an hour or two, but this hinders its due fermentation. 

Mead, is made from the honey-combs from which hone)i has been 
drained out, by boiling in water, and then fermenting, generally con- 
founded with metheglin. 

English Champaign. Raw sugar ten pounds, loaf sugar twelve 
pounds, water nine gallons, concrete acid of lemon, or crystallized acid 
of tartar six drachms; dissolve by a gentle boil; before it grows cold 
add about one pound of yeast, and ferment. When the working is 
nearly over, add perry one gallon, brandy three pounds, and bung it 
up for three months; then draw out two pounds of the wine, dissolve 
one ounce of isinglass in it, pour it again into the cask, and in a fort- 
night bottle it; it may be coloured pink by adding one ounce of coch- 
ineal when first bunged up. 

English Port. Cider twenty-four gallons, juice of elder berries 
six gallons, port v/ine four gallons, brandy one gallon and a half, log- 
wood one pound, isinglass twelve ounces, dissolved in a gallon of the 
cider; bung it down; in two months it will be fit to bottle, but should 
not be drank till the next year. If a rough flavour is required, four to 
six ounces of alum may be added. 

To restore Wine f listed or tasting of the cask. Draw that wine en- 
tirely out of its own lee and put it in another cask over a good lee. 
Then through the bung hole, hang up a bag with four ounces of laurel 
berries in powder and a sufficient quantity of steel filings at the bottom 
of the bag, to prevent its swimming on the top of the wine: and in pro- 
portion as you draw a certain quantity of the liquor, let down the bag.. 

To prevent Wine from Pricking. Put in the cask half a pound 
spirits of tartar, or when the wine is new throw in two ounces of com- 
mon alum for every hogshead. 

To clarifij Wine easily. Put in the cask two quarts of boiling milk, 
after having well skimmed it. 

To prevent Wine from turning. Put in the cask one pound of fine 
shot. 

To correct a musty taste in Wine. Knead a dough of the best 
wheat flour, and make it in the form of a rolling pin, or a short thick 
stick. Half bake it in the oven and stick it all over with cloves; re- 
place it in the oven and bake it quite. Suspend it in the cask over 
the wine without touching it, and let it remain there, or else plunge it 
in the wine. 

To correct a bitter or sour taste in fVine. Boil a quart of bar- 
ley in four quarts of wa,ter to the reduction of two. Strain what re- 



iS4 THE ARTIST AND *•' 

mains tbroiigli a cloth, and pour it in the cask; stiiihig all together 
with a stick without touching the lee. 

To restore spoiled Wine. Change the wine from its own lee upon 
that of good wine. Pulverize three or four nutmegs and as many 
dry orange peals, and throw them in; stop well the bung, and let 
it ferment one fortnight. After that term is over you will find it bet- 
ter than ever. This method has ^one through many experiments. 

To jrrevent tartness in Wine. Take in the month of March two ba- 
sins full of river sand, and after having dried it in the sun or in the 
oven throw it in the cask. 

To fine Spirits. Mix a small quantity of wheat flour in water, as if 
for making paste, and pour the same into the vessel. The whole is 
then to be well roused, and in a short time the contents will becom.e 
bright. 

Clove Cordial. Cloves, bruised, four pounds, pim.ento half a pound, 
proof spirit sixteen gallons. 

Digest the mixture tvvelve hours in a gentle heat, and then draw off 
fifteen gallons v/ith a pretty brisk fire. The water may be coloured 
red with tincture of cochineal, or other colouring matter. 

To preserve Lemon Juice. Wash the lemons and after expressing 
the juice, strain; then sift on half a pound pulverized chalk, to the 
juice obtained from a box of lemons: let it stand twenty-four hours; 
strain, and bottle tight. This is undoubtedly the best method to pre- 
serve lemon juice. 

Ratafia des Cerisis. Morello cherries with their kernels bruised, 
eight pounds, proof spirits eight pints; digest for a month; strain v*'ith 
expression; add sugar one pound eight ounces. 

Ratifta de Grenoble. Small wild black cherries with their kernels 
bruised twelve pounds, proof spirits six gallons; digest for a month; 
strain; add sugar twelve pounds; a little citron peel may be added at 
pleasure. 

Ratafia de JVoyeaux. Peach or apricot kernels,* with their shells, 
bruised in number 120, proof spirits four pints, sugar ten ounces. Some 
reduce spirits of wine rectified to proof, with the juice of apricots or 
peaches to make this liquor. 

Brandy Shrub. Brandy nine pints, lemon juice, orange juice, of 
each one pint, orange peels four in number, lemon peels two in 
number, sugar two pounds, water five pints. 

The same formula will answer for making rum shrub, using rum in- 
stead of brandy. 

Chreme des Barbadoes. Orange peels, lemon peels, of each three 
in number, cinnamon four ounces, mace two drachms, cloves one 
drachm, rum eighteen pints; distil in balneum mariae, and add sugar 
P- seq. 

Chreme des Barbadoes — English. Lemons sliced in number 
twenty-four, citrons shced, in number six, spirits wine rectified two 
gallons four pints, fresh balm leaves eight ounces, water three gal- 
lons four pints; digest for a fornight; strain. 

Cedrat. Lemon peels in number twelve, spirits wine rectified two 
gallons; distil in balneum maria?, and add simple syrup p. asq. 

Parfait Amour. The«6ame coloured with a little cochineal. 

Rum Shrub. Concreta.%4id of lemons eight ounces, water five 



tradesman's, guide. 13d 

gailons, raisin win« four gallons, rum ten gallons, orange flower wa- 
ter four pints, honey six pounds. 

Chreme de JVoyaux — English. Bitter almonds blanched four oun- 
ces, proof spirits two pints, sugar one pound. 

Chreme de Orange— English. Oranges sliced in number thirty- 
six, spirits wine rectified two gallons, sugar eighteen pounds, water 
fonr gallons four pints, tincture of saliron one ounce four drachms, or- 
ange flower water four pints; digest for a fortnight; strain. 

All the aforementioned liquors are stimulant and taken ad libitum 
for pleasure. 

S^^ip Lemon Juice. Juice rendered clear by setthng and subse- 
quent filtering one pint, white sugar two pounds. 

Stjrup citri medicce. Juice rendered clear as before three pounds, 
sugar five pounds; cooling, expectorant, pleasanter than oxymuriate. 
iSyrup c?' Orgeat — Syrup kordeatus. Amygd. dulc. one pound, 
Amygd. amar. two drachms, make an emulsion by adding decoct, 
hord. two pounds; strain; to the strained liquor ten ounces, add sacch. 
alb. one pound and a half, and when the sugar is dissolved, aq. flor. 
aurant. one drachm. 

2. New almonds eight ounces, bitter alrnonds four ounces, rub 
with a little water into an emulsion; strain, rub what is left upon the 
strainer afresh with the emulsion; to make it as rich as possible add 
white sugar three pounds, orange flower water two ounces, spirits of 
leinon peel six drachms, strain through flannel and put up into bottles; 
cooling, demulcent. 

Brown Spruce Beer, as the white, using treacle in lieu of the sugar. 
In regard to the white and brown spruce and ginger beer and the wines, 
it is said the purer kinds Ste mixtures of spirits of wine, water, and ex- 
tractive matter: the spirits may be separated by careful distillation, or 
if the extractive matter be iirst got rid of by the addition of extractura 
saturni and filtration, the spirits may be separated by adding very pure 
kali ppm. when it will sv>^im upon the liquor; the spirit constitutes from 
twelve to twenty-five per cent, of the proper wines, and from two to 
eight per cent, of the malt liquors. 

The fermentation of these liquors is usuaHy hastened by the addi- 
tion of yeast, crude tartar, or bruised vine le-x^es, but this is seldom 
necessary for wines, if the liquor be kept in api-oper warmth; but malt 
liquors are more sluggish. 

If the fermentation is in danger of proceed'ag too far, it may be 
stopped by drawing off the liquor clear into another vesselin which 
some brimstone has been newly burned, or in the case of red wine, 
some nutmeg powder upon a hot shovel, or which has been washed with 
brandy; the sediment left in the old cask, may be strained through 
flannel or paper till clear and added to the other; instead of this 
a part only may be drawn out of tiie cask and some rags dipped in melt- 
ed brimstone and lighted, may be held by a pair of tongs in the bung 
hole slightly covered, so as to impregnate the liquor with the fumes; 
about one ounce of brimstone to a hogshead, then returning what had 
been drawn out, and bunging up very close; or a small quantity of 
oil of vitriol may be poured in: lastly the addition of black manganese 
has been proposed on theoretical grounds. 

If the fermentation has proceeded too far, and the Hquoi' sours, the 

Z 



186 THE ARflST AND 

fermentation must be stopped as above, and some lumps of chalk, or 
burned oyster shells added, to saturate the acid already generated. 

If the liquors do not become clear soon enough, for each thirty 
gallons dissolve one ounce of isinglass in two pounds of water. Strain, 
and mix this with part of the liquor; beat it up to a froth, and pour it in- 
to the liquor. Stir the whole well and bung it up: instead of isinglass 
some use hartshorn shavings in rather larger quantities. Red wines 
are fined with twelve eggs to the pipe, beaten up to a froth, and well 
stirred and mixed in with t!ie wine. 

If the liquor has acquired a bad flavour, the best way is to let the 
fermentation go on, and conve'rt it at once into vinegar. 

To make Treacle Beer. Boil two quarts of water, put it into one 
pound of treacle, stir them together till they are well mixed; then put 
six or eight quarts of cold water to it, and about a tea cup full of yeast 
or balm; put it in a clean cask or tub, cover it over with a coarse cloth 
two or three times double; it v.ill be fit to drink in two or three days. 
The second or third time of making, the bottom of tJie first beer will 
do instead of yeast; if you make a large quantity, or intend it for keep- 
ing, you must put in a handful of hops and another of malt for it to 
feed on, and when done working, stop it up close. 

The above is the best and cheapest way of making treacle beer, 
though some people add raisins, bran, wormwood, spices, such fruit, 
&c. as are in season; but that is just as you fancy. Indeed, many 
pleasant, cheap, and wholesome drinks may be made from fruits, &c. 
if they are bruised and boiled in water before the treacle is added. 

Cherry Brandy. This liquor is greatly called for in the country, 
and is made in different ways. Some press out the juice of the cher- 
ries, and having dulcified it with sugar, add as much spirits to it as 
the goods will bear, or the price it is intended to be sold for. But the 
common method is to put the cherries clean picked into a cask, with 
a proper quantity of proof spirits, and after standing eighteen or twen- 
ty days, the goods are drawn off into another cagk for sale, and about 
two-thirds of the first quantity of spirits poured into the cask upon the 
cherries. This is suffered to stand about a month to extract the 
whole virtue from the cherries, after which it is drawn ofi'as before; 
and the cherries pressed to take out the spirits they had absorbed. 
The proportion of cherries is not very nicely observed: the general 
rule is to let the cask be about half filled with cherries and then filled 
up with proof spirits. Some add to every twenty gallons of spirits, 
half an ounce of cinnamon, an ounce of cloves, and about three pounds 
of sugar; by which the flavour of the goods is considerably increased. 
But in order to save expense, not only the spices and the sugar are 
omitted, but also a great part of the cherries, and the deficiency sup- 
plied by the juice of elder berries. Sometimes adding molasses to 
sweeten instead of sugar, when the eider berries are not made use of. 
Raisin and Apple Spirits, c^-c. By raisin spirits are to be understood 
that extracted from raisins after a proper fermentation. In order to 
extract the spirits, the raisins must be infused in a proper quantity of 
water and fermented in the manner described in the article on fermen- 
tation. When the fermentation is completed, the whole is to be 
thrown into -the still, and the spirits extracted by a strong fire. The 
reason why a strong fire is directed, is because by that n.cans a great- 



tradesman's guide. 187 

er quantity of the essential oil will come over tjie helm with the spir- 
its, which will render it much fitter for the distiller's purpose; for these 
spirits are generally used to mix with common malt goods: and it is 
surprising how far it will go in this respect; ten gallons of it being suf- 
ficient to give a determining flavour and agreeable vinosity to a 
whole piece of malt spirits. It is therefore well worth the distiller's 
attention to endeavour at improving the common method of extracting 
spirits from raisins; and perhaps the folio wirg hint merits attention. 
When the fermentation is completed and the still charged with fer- 
mented liquor as before directed, let the v/hole be drawn off with as 
brisk a fire as possible; but instead of the cask or can, generally used 
by our American distillers for a receiver, let a large glass, called by 
chemists, a separating glass, be placed under the nose of the worm, 
and a common receiver applied to the spout of the separating glass; 
by this means the essential oil will swim upon the top of the spirits, 
or rather lov/ vv'ine, in the separating glass, and may easily be preserv- 
ed at the end of the operation. The use of this limpid is well known 
to distillers, who have made their business a scientific study; for in 
this resides the whole flavour, and consequently may be used to the 
greatest advantage in giving that distinguishing taste and true vinosi- 
ty to the common malt spirits. After the oil is separated from the 
low wine, the liquor may be rectified in balneum maries, into pure 
and almost tasteless spirits, and therefore well adapted to make the 
finest compound cordials, or to imitate or mix with the finest French 
brandies, arracks, &c. In the same manner, spirits may be obtained 
from cider. But as its particular flavour is not so desirable as that 
obtained from raisins, it should be distilled in a more gentle way, and 
carefully rectified in the manner shown in the article on rectification, 
by which means, very pure and almost tasteless and insipid spirits 
will be obtained which may be used to very great advantage in im.itat- 
ing the best brandies of France, or in making the finest compound 
waters or cordials. 

Suga)' Spirits. It is meant by sugar spirits, that extracted from 
the wasliings, scummings, dross and waste of a sugar baker's house. 
These recremcnlitious or drossy parts of the sugar are to be diluted 
with water, in the sasne manner as molasses or wash, and then distil- 
led in the common method; and if the operation be carefully perform- 
ed, and the spirits well rectified, it may be mixed with foreign bran- 
dies, and even arrack in a large proportion, to great advantage; foit 
these spirits will be found superior to that extracted from treacle, and 
consequently more proper for these uses. 

In closing this chapter we will observe, that the wines of commerce 
undergo very frequently, a great change, either by being mixed, or 
adulterated after importation. We should be glad to take up several 
pages on this subject, but it must suffice to state, that if all purcha- 
sers were careful in obtaining the certificates of the casks of wine which 
they buy, the risk would shortly be in sorne measure diminished in 
obtaining spurious goods. We are assured an empty rum hogshead, 
wine or brandy cask, with a certificate corresponding with the brand 
on the cask, would bring double the price, of the same cask without 
a, certificate; besides, enough more to pay the freight, from any sec- 



ISS THE ARTIST AND 

tion of oiiF eountry to the cities. (See laws relative to spirits, wines, 
and teas.) 

We have no particular formula for compounding wines, as it would 
depend on the quality of the goods to be blended. An equal quantity 
ef the best Sicily, Madeira and Colmenar, is preferable to most kinds 
found through the country, besides furnishing a very cheap article. 

CHAPTER XXXIV. 

LAWS RELATIVE TO SPIRITS, WINES, TEAS, &c. 

Extracted from IngersoVs D^igest. 

24. Sec. XLI. The surveyor or chief officer of inspection, shal! 
give the proprietor, importer, or consignee, of any. distilled spirits, 
wines, or teas, or his or her agent, a particular certificate, which shall 
accompany each cask, chest, vessel, or case, of distilled spirits, wines, 
or teas, wherever the same may be sent v»ithin the limits of the Uni- 
ted States, as evidence that the same has been lawfully imported. 
Form as follows: 

No. District of , Port of . 



I certify that there v\-as imported in this district, on the [here insert 
the date of importation] by [here insert the name of the proprietor, 
importer, or consignee] in the [here insert the name of the vessel, the 
surname of the m.aster, and whether a Vessel of the United States, or 
a foreign vessel] from [here insert the place from which imported] 
one [here insert whether cask, chest, vessel or case, by the proper 
name] of [here insert whether spiiits, wines, or. teas and the kinds of 
each] numbered and marked as per margin; [the marks of the im- 
spector to be inserted in the margin] containing [here insert the num- 
ber of gallons, and rate of proof, of spirits, or gallons, if wines, or 
number of pounds weight net, if teas.] 

A. B. Supervisor. 

Countersigned by C. D. Ins^ecior, 

26. Sec. XLIII. The proprietor, importer, or consignee, or his 
or her agent, who may receive said certificates, shall, upon the sale 
and delivery of any of the said spirits, wines, or teas, deliver to the 
purchaser or purchasers thereof, the certificate or certificates which 
ought to accompany the same, on pain of forfeiting the sum of fifty 
dollars for each cask, chest, vessel or case, with which such certifi- 
cate shall not be dehvered: and if any casks, chests, vessels or cases 
containing distilled spirits, wines, or teas, by the foregoing provisions 
ought to be marked and accompanied with certificates, shall be found 
in the possession of any person unaccompanied with such marks and 
certificates, it shall be presumptive evidence that the same are liable 
to forfeiture; and it shall be lawful for any officer of the customs or of 
inspection to seize them as aforesaid; and if upon trial, the conse- 
quence of such seizure, the owner or claimant of the spirits, wines, 
©r teas, seized, shall not prove that the same were imported into the 
United States according to law, and the duties thereupon paid, or se- 
cured, they shall be adjudged to be forfeited. 

27. Sec. XLIV. On the sale of any cask, chest, vessel or case 
whieh has been, or shall be marked pursuant to the provisions afore- 



tradesman's guide. 189 

said as containiag distilled spirits, wines, or teas, and which has been 
emptied of its contents, and prior to the delivery thereof to the pur- 
chaser, or any removal thereof, the marks and numbers v/nich shall 
have been set thereon by or under the direction of any officer of in- 
spection, shall be defaced and obliterated in the presence of some ot^ 
licer of inspection or of the customs, v.ho, shall, on due notice being 
given, attend for that purpose, at which time the certificate, which 
ought to accompany such cask, chest, vessel, or case, shall also be 
returned and cancelled; and every person who shall obliterate, coun- 
terfeit, alter, or deface any mark or number, placed by an officer of 
inspection upon any cask, vessel, or case, containing distilled spirits, 
wines, or teas, or any certiiicate thereof; or who shall sell, or in any 
way alienate or remove any cask, chest, vessel, or case, which 
has been emptied of its contents, before the marks and numbers set 
thereon, pursuant to the provisions aforesaid, shall have been defaced 
or obliterated, in presence of an officer of inspection as aforesaid; or 
who shall neglect or refuse to deliver the certificate issued to accom- 
pany the cask, chest, vessel, or case, of which the marks and num- 
bers shall have been defaced or obliterated, in the manner aforesaid, 
on being thereto required by an officer of inspection or of the customs, 
shall for each and every such offence, forfeit and pay one hundred 
dollars, with costs of suit. 

124. Sec. XIX.. When any goods, wares or merchandise, sh?ill 
be admitted to entry upon invoice, the collector of the port in which 
the same are entered, shall certify such invoice under his official seal; 
and no other evidence of the value of such goods, wares, or merchan- 
dise, shall be admitted on the part of the owners thereof, in any court 
of the United States, except in corroboration of such invoice. 

125. Sec. XX. Any person or persons, who shall counterfeit any 
certiiicate or attestation made in pursuance of this act, or use such 
certificate or attestation, knowing the same to be counterfeit, shall, 
upon conviction, thereof, before any court of the United States, hav- 
ing cognizance of the same, be adjudged guilty of felony, and be fined 
in a sum not exceeding , ten thousand dollars, and imprisoned for a 
term not exceeding three years. 

127. Sec. XXil. The collector of the customs shall be required 
to (iause one package at least out of every invoice, and one package 
at least out of every fifty packages, of every invoice of goods, wares, 
or merchandise, imported into their respective districts, to be opened 
and examined, and if the same be found not to correspond with the in- 
voice thereof, or to be falsely charged in such invoice, a full inspection 
of all such goods, wares, or merchandise, as may be included in the 
same entry, shall be made; and if any package is found to contain any 
article not described in the invoice, the whole package shalPbe forfeit- 
ed; and in case such goods, v.'ares, or merchandize, shall be subject 
to an ad valorem duty, the same proceedings shall be had, and the 
same penalties shall be incurred, as in the eleventh section of this act: 
provided, that nothing herem contained shall save from forfeiture any 
package, having in it any article not described in the invoice. 



. 190 THE ARTISX AND 

CHAPTER XXXY. ^ 

TEA, SUGAR, &c. 

On the qualitij of Suo'ars, ivith Practical Remarks. Not ha vino- 
authority, except from that founded on our own experience, we enter 
upon the subject laid out for us with some diffidence, as there are ma- 
ny whom we consider our superiors; however we are wdlUng to abide 
the test, and rest the subject on close investigation. 

There are few staples so variable in quality as sugar. Havannas 
are undoubtedly preferable to any brought to our market, and are not 
only as profitable to the retailer, but most profitable to the consumer. 
Either white or brown is from ten to fifteen per cent, sweeter; besides 
the flavour approxhnates nearer to that of the loaf sugar of the shops: 
they are imported in boxes, weighing from three to four hundred 
pounds, free from foot, and perfectly diy. Generally every pound, 
throughout the chest, will correspond with the sample. Chests weigh 
ing four hundred pounds, have been know^n to gain forty pounds; usu-«. 
ally twenty-five pounds in the tare. There is a difference in the qual- 
ity of these sugars, often per cent, perhaps more. Some of the Bra- 
zils are very fair and profitable. Refiners generally give these sugars 
a preference. 

Of the browns, St. Croix lead in price in some of our markets; they 
certainly are very superior sugars, veiy clean, richly grained, and of a 
lively colour, but wanting in that fine flavour which distinguishes the 
Havannas. 

The Calcutta sugars are mixed advantageously with the ordinary 
sugars of the islands. These mixtures require some care, or the 
improvement might be called a deception. Some of these sugars 
have a very bad flavour, and should be avoided by the purchaser: but 
those of prime quality are very fair and saleable; they are imported in 
bags v/eighing from one to two hundred pounds. There are many 
other kinds we should be glad to notice, if our limits would permit, 
but we can only indulge ourselves in a fev>^ brief remarks. 

The islands furnish sugars of various quahties, precisely as they do 
of spirits. We have the best rum from St. Jroix, (unless Jamaica 
excepted) so it is with respect to sugars; the difference probably aris- 
es in a great measure on account of the sweetness of the cane, and 
the same inference can be drawn in regard to the flavour of sugars, as 
will be found in the chapter on flavouring spirits; though much un- 
doubtedly may be attributed to the m.anufacturers. Vast quantities 
of sugars are sent into commerce, unmerchantable, or rather before 
they have ripened-, or been properly drained. This is almost univer- 
sally the case with New Orleans,which on opening appears very bright, 
but the air soon decomposes it, and if not of sufficient ripeness or age,, 
the retailer of pounds generally finds it a most unprofitable article. 

We can draw a very fair conclusion of the ripeness of a piece 
of goods, particularly when it has lain some time in the ware- 
house. If we discover molasses issuing from the crevices; betweei^ 
the staves and about the heads, and it is evident much has been de- 
posited on the floor about the cask, then, it is also evident it will fall 
short of the custom-house weight. In every case the draining head 
•^or side, should always be well probed; indeed every part should be 



TRADESMAN'S GUIDE. 191 

carefully examined, or we shall not be certain of its average quality. 
Much experience and care are required in selecting sugars: perhaps 
it may not be unprofitable to examine when purchasing, if the casks 
are not overcharged with hoops or thick staves, heads, &c. Those 
pieces which contain the largest quantity, usually produce the greatest 
gain in the tare. The allowances and tares on sugars will be found 
under their respective heads. 

Tea, is distinguished in name, as it differs in colour, flavour and 
size of its leaf; though its quality is mere generally recognized under 
the title o^ chop: thus, in the same cargo, we have often seen several 
chops, (qualities) of young hyson tea, frequently varying to 40 per cent. 

It is said the Chinese neither drink it in the manner we do, nor so 
strong, but use it only as their common drink. It is reckoned among 
them, a singular diluter and purifier of the blood; a great strengthener 
of the brain and stomach, and promoter of digestion, perspiration, &c. 
They drink it in great quantities in high fevers, choHcs, &c. think it a 
sure, though slov/remedy against chronic diseases. 

As it would be endless to enter into a full detail, we would rec- 
ommend dealers to attend a cargo sale previously furnishing them- 
selves with A catalogue, and examining the sample chests or boxes. 
The advantages to be derived by attending public sales, are unneces- 
sary to demonstrate, and it must suffice to assure the reader, at these 
sales, the merchant can become possessed of every desirable informa- 
tion, not only with respect to the qualities, but the standard prices of 
almost every staple article. Teas should be selected with the great- 
est care; and here it may not be improper to remind the purchaser of 
one very material fact, that re-Keighing chests, as practised by some 
retailers, is not correcU though it may be called customary. We be- 
lieve we are perfectly familiar with the arguments adduced in favour of 
the practice; and it is our object to attempt to show their futility, and 
silence for ever a doubt on the subject. And, 

1. Government regulates commerce; by its offices, tares on import- 
ed goods are established, and thereby the importer becomes subject to 
the regulations of the custom-house. 

2. If no other reason can be assigned, this alone is sufficient, why 
they should be correct, and that they are rightly estimated, which is, in 
order to secure the full amount of duties; and, depend upon it, the im- 
porter feels as willing to have his teas marked as much as the box or 
chest contains, as it is for the benefit of the country the duties on ev- 
ery pound should be secured. 

3. The difficulties which might arise are innumerable, provided 
tares be substituted, varying from those established by the custom- 
house, in every case when sales are effected; and is it not undeniable 
none are more likely to be correct, unless the goods are emptied from 
every hogshead, chest, &c. thus preventing a general average, which 
in regard to teas, is not desirable, if practicable. It cannot be under- 
stood by the tariff bill, that a duty of forty cents per pound, (the duty 
on young hyson tea) shall be secured on the boxes in which it is im- 
ported, any more than permitting a single pound of tea to be exempt- 
ed from duties. 

4. Suppose we should re-ship teas to any port within the jurisdic- 
tion of the United States, and either on her passage, or at her port of* 



192 THE ARTIST AND 

entry, the vessel's papers are demanded by the revenue officer, (for it 
must be remembered the law is explicit, requiring the supercargo or 
master, not only to produce the certificate of his clearance, but a certifi- 
cate of each chest of tea, which on failure, both the vessel and cargo 
are liable at least to be detained, if not forfeited;) we are already ap 
prised of the difficulties which might arise, if not the probable result, 
(provided the certificate of her clearance only can be procured,) if it 
could not be proved the teas had been regularly entered at a custom- 
house. Is it not reasonable then, that every purchaser of a chest of 
tea, should be entitled to a certificate? 

6. Provided our teas are insured, in case of damage hov/ do we 
prove the quantity shipped? We answer, if our invoice of shipment 
IS correct, we can prove the quantity by the custom-house books, if in 
no other way, provided the certificates are lost. And on the other 
hand, if our invoice show teas of c number, with a quantity which the 
custom house books does not recognize, the consequences which fol- 
low, might at least give rise to a great deal of litigation. We have 
never known an importer to sell tea different from the custom-bouse 
mark, though we believe it is quite customary for the retailer to re- 
weigh and deduct a tare of his own making. If the (3ystom-house 
tares are a rough calculation, as some suggest, does it follow that those 
substituted by some retailers are to be more approved? It must be 
understood that boxes and chests, independent of their contents, vary 
in weight, quarter chests frequently from two to eight pounds; thus, if 
one chest weighs eighteen, another tv/enty-two, a third twenty-six, the 
average weight is twenty-tv/o; and according to the principles of the 
custom-house, each chest would be marked with the averagatare de- 
ducted. The number of pounds the chest contains is put on the chest, 
with a pencil or brush, (though sometimes we have seen printed fig- 
ures) opposite the number of the chest: a careful examination will dis- 
cover to us this mark, called by dealer- . the '>lack mark, unless rub- 
bed out, which may sometimes be prav. ised through motives which 
cannot be commended. 

The certificate of each chest is made, signed by the supervisor of the 
port where it was landed, coiTcsponding with the custom-house brand 
on the chest, viz. the number of the box or chest, number of pounds 
of tea, time of entry, name of the ship in which the tea was imported, 
&c. We have frequently seen chests of tea after having added to them 
an additional weight in hoops, have gained to the seller in some in- 
stances, over the custom-house mark, nine or ten pounds, generally 
four or five; by carefully reverting to the custom-house tares, and in- 
specting the boxes or chests, we \dll readily perceive whether we have 
our just v/eight. W'e will now ask which of the two is the most equi- 
table tare, or admits of a more rough calculation^ the one established 
by the custom-house, or that substituted by the retailer, the one twen- 
ty-two pounds on quarter chests of eighty pounds and upwards, down m 
weight, and twenty pounds on quarter chests weighing seventy pounds, 
&c. (see custom-house tares,) or the systematic deduction of the 
retailer, with his addition of hoops^ and close weight, deducting nine- 
teen pounds on quarter chests without distinction? The laws are 
plain on the subject, and they are not passed to be trampled upon. 
(See laws relative to^vspirits, wines, teas, &c.} 



tradesman's guide. 193 

VVfe have good authority in stating, though personaHy unacquainted 
with the fact, teas of a rich quality are sometimes emptied and the^ 
chests filled with ordinary kinds; and so nicely done that few are able 
to detect the deception. However, it is not to be believed there are 
many so destitute of every good principle as to be engaged in the prac- 
tice. Those who feel no compunction in making "wooden nutmegs 
and horn flints," perhaps, might not think it amiss to make a little 
money in this way. 

Of Tobacco. We have something to say respecting this great sta- 
ple article; and to be short, we advise purchasers to look out. 

Our ever to be respected master used frequently to say, that "goods 
well bought were half sold," and that "a penny saved was as good as 
a penny earned." It matters not to our present purpose whether w© 
were, or otherwise, inattentive to his sage advice, though we have n® 
doubt if we had attended to it strictly and sijstematicaUy, we should at 
least have saved so much, as would have kept our teeth free from ex- 
pense, in regard to this article, all our lives. 

The grand question is easily solved; are we compelled by the law^ 
of our country to pay for staves and hoops, when we purchase tobac- 
co"? and are such practices to be suffered with impunity? Thus we 
leave the article for every one to make his own comments. 

Of Flour. We will not be too prolix on this article. The old and 
lawful rule, which we have never heard contradicted, is 196 pounds of 
flour to the barrel. Has there not been hundreds of barrels, after in- 
spection, sold in the United States, when the barrel and contents 
would not weigh more than 200 pounds'? 

Of Cotton. This article is susceptible of being charged with a con- 
siderable per centum of moisture, which without close examination is 
not easily detected. It seems that there should be a general test for 
detecting impositions of this kind, but we are unable to point it out at 
the present moment. 

We should be glad to extend our remarks to various articles in mer- 
chandise, which require much sagacity in purchasing, besides those 
mentioned above. But we trust enough has already been said to draw 
the conclusion, that for the sake of money, many overleap the bounds 
of right, and it should seem, subject themselves to the loss of respect 
and confidence, notwithstanding they may evade the laws cf the 
country. 

CHAPTER XXXVI. 
USEFUL RECEIPTS. 

Dover's Sudorific Powder. Take of ipecacuanha in powder, 
opium purified, each one part, sulphate of potash eight parts, triturate 
them together in a fine powder. 

The sulphate of potash from the grittiness of its crystals, is perhaps 
better fitted for tearing and dividing the tenacious opium than any 
other salt; this seems to be its only use in the preparation. The op- 
erator ought to be careful that the opium and ipecacuanha be equal- 
ly diffused through the whole mass of powder, otherwise different 
portions of the powder must difler in degrees of strength. 

Aa 



194 THE ARTI3T AND 

This powder is one of the most certain sudorifics, and as such, was 
recommended by Dr. Dover as an effectual remedy in rheumatism. 
Modern practice confirms its reputation, not only in rheumatism, but 
also in dropsy, and several other diseases, where it is often difficult 
by other means, to procure copious perspiration. The dose is from 
two to five grains, repeated according to the patient's stomach and 
strength. It is proper to avoid drinking immediately after taking it, 
otherwise it is very apt to be rejected, before any other effects can be- 
produced. Perspiration should be kept by diluents. 

Phimmer^s Pills. These pills are diaphoretic, alterative, purga- 
tive, and beneficial in cutaneous eruptions. 

Take of calomel, sulphate of antimony, of each one drachm, gum 
guaiacum two drachms. Mix them assiduously with mucilage, and 
divide into sixty pills, two pills forming the dose. To be taken at 
night. 

Earl Wanvich^s Powder. Scammonii two ounces, antimonii daph. 
one ounce, crem. tart, half an ounce. 

Sloreifs Worm Cakes. Calomel, jalap, of each one drachm, gin- 
ger two scruples, sacch. one ounce, cinnabar anti. a sufiicient quan- 
tity to colour them: syrup simp, a sufiicient quantity to make into 
Cakes. 

Worm Cakes. Scamm. Allep. two ounces, calomel ppd. three 
ounces, res. jalap two ounces, crem. tart, four ounces, white sugar 
three pounds, mucil. g. trag. a suflicient quantity. 

Worm Pills. Calomel one ounce, sugar tv/o ounces, starch one 
ounce, mucil. gum traga. a sufficient quantity, to make two hundred 
and forty-eight pills; dose, number one night and morning, for chil- 
dren. 

Refined Juice or Liquorice. Spanish liquorice four pounds, gum 
Ara. two pounds, water a sufficient quantity; dissolve, strain: evapo- 
rate gently to a soft extract, roll in cylinders, cut into lengths, and 
polish, by rubbing them together in a box; expectorant in coughs, &c. 
Pate de Reghsse j\^oire. Refined liquorice eight ounces, gum Ara- 
bic two pounds, sugar one pound, water a sufficient quantity; dissolve 
and evaporate, till it forms a very thick syrup, add rad. enulae. camp, 
rad. irid. flor. of each half an ounce, ess. de cedrat a few drops, put 
into tin moulds, and dry in a stove. 

Yoimg^s Purging Drink. Crystallized natron two and a half 
drachms, crystals of tartar three drachms, water eight ounces, corked 
up immediately in stone bottles and wired: a pleasant cooling laxative 
in summer. 

Ward''s White Drops. Quicksilver twelve ounces, spirits nitre two 
pounds; dissolve; add ammonia, ppa. fourteen ounces, evaporate so 
as to form a light salt, which drain and dissolve in rose water, three 
pounds and a half. 

Greek Water, is prepared and used in the same manner for turning 
the hair black. 

kft: Some perhaps might give a preference to the following preparation. 
Quicksilver four ounces, spirits of nitre one pound; dissolve; add am- 
monia ppa. seven ounces: evaporate and crystallize,then dissolve each 
pound of salt in three pints and a half of rose water. 

Godfrey's Cordial. Dissolve half an ounce of opium, one draclmi 



« 



tradesman's guide. 195 

of sassafras in two ounces spirits of wine: now mix four pounds of 
treacle, with one gallon of boiling water and when cold, mix both so- 
lutions. This is generally used to soothe the pains of children, &c. 

Lee's Windham Anli-Bilious Pills. Pul. gamb. three pounds, 
aloes soc. two pounds, sapon. due. one pound, sal. nitri half a pound, 
extra, of cow parsnip one pound, beat them into mass witha sufficient 
quantity of sp. wine lect. 

Lee^s JVeiw London Pills. Pulv. aloes soc. twelve ounces, pulv. 
scammon. A. six ounces, pulv. gamb. four ounces, pulv. jalap three 
ounces, calomel pp. five ounces, sapon. cast, one ounce, syrup buck- 
thorn, one ounce, muc. gum. Arab, seven ounces, m. ft. mass s. a. 
when, incorporated, divide two draclims of ihe mass, into twenty-four 
pills. 

Sniilh^s Brilish Lavender. 01. lavend. Aug. two ounces, essence 
ambergr. one ounce, eau de luce one ])int, spirits wine rect. two pints. 

Essence of Peppermint. Spirits wine rectified one pint, put into it 
kali pp. one ounce, previously heated, decant, and add ol. minth. pip, 
half, an ounce, mix. 

2. 01. minlh. pip. one pound, sp. wine rect. two gallons, colour 
with herb minth. pip. sic. eight ounces, mix. 

3. 01. minth. pip. three ounces, sp. wine rect. coloured with spin- 
age two pints; mix. 

Hiirs Balsam of Honey. Bals. Tolu one pound, honey one pound, 
sp. wine rect. one gallon. 

2. Balsam Tolu opt. two ounces, gum styrax two drachms opii 
pur. half a drachm, mell. opt. eight ounces, sp. wine rect. two pints; 
pectoral used in coughs and colds. 

Ford^s Balsam of Iloarhound. Hoarhound, liquorice root, of each 
three pounds eight ounces, water a sufficient quantity to strain six 
pints, infuse; to the infusion add proof spirits or brandy twelve pints, 
camphor one ounce and two drachms, opium pur., Benjamin of each 
one ounce, dried squills two ounces, oil of anise seeds one ounce, hon- 
ey three pounds and eight ounces. 

Slouglilon''s Elixir. Rad. gentian two pounds four ounces, rad. 
serp. verg. one pound, cort. aurant. sice, one pound and eight ounces, 
cal. aromat. four ounces, spirits of wine rectified, water, of each six 
gallons. 

2. Rad. gentian four pounds, cort. aurant. two pounds, pis. aurant, 
one pound, cocin. two drachms, sem. cardam. min. one ounce, spr. 
of wine rectified eight gallons. 

Hooper^s Pills. Vitriol, virid. aquse of each eight ounces; dissolve; 
add aloes Barb, two pounds eight ounces, canellte alb. six ounces, 
gum. myrrhgetwo ounces, oponacis four drachms. 

2. Sal. martis two ounces pulv. aloes c. canella? one pound, muci- 
lage gum tragacanthae, tinct. aloes, of each a sufficient quantity, cut 
each drachm into eighteen pills, put forty in a box. 

Matthew^s Pills — Starkey^s Pills. Rad. helleb. nigri rad. helleb. 
albi rad. glycyrrh. opii of each two ounces, sapon. Starkeii six oua- 
ces, ol. terebinth, a sufficient quantity. 

2. Rad. helleb. nigri rad. glycyrrh. sapon. castill. rad. circumae, 
opii purifF. syr. croci. of each four ounces, ol. terebinth, a sufficient 
quantity. 



196 THE ARTIST ANiJ 

Barclay's Anti-Bilious Pills. Extract colocynth. two drachms, 
resin, jalap one drachm, sapon. amygdal. one drachm and a half, 
guaiaci three drachms, tart. emet. eight grains, ol. junip. ol. carui, ol. 
lorismar. of each fom-gtt. syr. spin. cerv. a sufficient quantity; make in- 
to sixty-four pills. 

Worm Pills. Calomel one ounce, sugar two ounces, starch one 
ounce, mucil. gum traga. a sufficient quantity, to make two hundred 
and forty-eight pills; dose, number one, night and morning for chil- 
dren. 

Keyser^s Fills. Hydrag. acetat. four ounces, manna thirty ounces, 
starch two ounces, mucil. gum traga. a sufficient quantity, make into 
pills of six grains each; dose, number two, nocte maneque, increasing 
the dose to number twenty-five, or more; a box of 1000 or 1200 is 
usually sufficient. 

Escuhod Usquebaugh. SaiTron one ounce, juniper berries four 
drachms, dates without their kernels, raisins, of each three ounces, 
jujebs six ounces, anise seed, mace, cloves, coriander seed, of each 
one drachm, cinnamon two drachms, proof spirits twelve pints, simple 
syrup six pounds; pectoral, emmenagogue. 

Dulhifs Carminative. Tinct. opii four and a half drachms, tinct. 
assa. two and a half drachms, oi. carui three scruples, ol. minth. pip. six 
scruples, tinct. castor, six and a half drachms, sp. of wine rect. six 
drachms, put two drachms into each bottle with magnesia one drachm, 
and fill up with simple syrup and a little sp. of wine. rect. 

Scotch JSIalmelade. Juice of Seville oranges two pints, yellow hon- 
ey two pounds, boil to a proper consistence. 

Botany Bay Cement. Yellow gum and brick dust of each p. aeq. 
used to cement china ware. 

Admirable wash for the Hair to thicken its growth. Take two oun- 
ces each of rosemary, maiden hair, southernwood, myrtle berries and 
hazle bark, and burn them to ashes on a clean hearth, or in an oven; 
with these ashes make a strong lye, with which wash the hair at the 
roots every day, and keep it cut short. This lixivium, it is said will 
destroy that unsuspected enemy to the hair, the worm at the root. 

Easy and effectual method of rendering all kinds of Paper fire 
proof This surprising 'ejffect is produced by a simple cause. It is 
only necessary that the paper, whether plain, coloured, written, print- 
ed or stained, should be immersed in a strong solution of alum water, 
and afterwards thoroughly dried, when it will immediately become fire 
proof. The experiment may easily be made, by holding a piece of 
paper thus prepared over the flame of a candle. Some paper, howev- 
er, will require to imbibe more of the solution than it can do by a sin- 
gle immersion, in which case the dipping and drying must be repeated 
till the paper becomes fully saturated. It is asserted that neither the 
colour nor quality of the paper will receive the least injury from this 
operation, but that on the contrary they will be improved. 

An excellent Paste for stopping Holes or Cracks in Iron Cidinary 
Utensils, so as to render them perfectly tight. To six quarts of potter's 
clay, add one part steel filings, and of hnseed oil a sufficient quantity 
to render the mixture of the consistence of glazier's putty and fill the 
holes with it. This will soon become hard, and resist the action both 
-C^f'v.fatevsind fixe^ 



tradesman's GtlDE. •^^7" 

Eau de Husson. Is probably a mixed tincture or wine of henbane 
and colchicum. A tincture of colchicum has been proposed for it by 
Want; a tincture of hedge hyssop is said to be sold for it by Reece; 
and a wine of white helleb. proposed by Moore, but neither of them 
is possessed of the same characteristics as the Parisian medicine. 

Bateman's Pectoral Drops. Sem. fcenic. dulc. two pounds and 
eight ounces, sem. anise one pound, proof spirits four gallons, water 
a sufficient quantity, distil ten gallons, to which add opium seven oun- 
ces and four drachms, camphor six ounces, kali pp. one ounce, coral 
rubr. four ounces. 

2. Castor N. A. two ounces, opium, ol. anisi, of each one ounce and 
four drachms, camph. eight ounces, sem. fffin. dulc. two ounces, tinct. 
antim. four ounces, proof spirits ten pints, add rad. valerian and coch- 
ineal in powder. 

3. Castor, camphor, of each four ounces, coccin. one ounce,, spir- 
its of wine rectified, two gallons, water one gallon. 

4. Opii camph. of each one pound, castor, ol, anisi, santal. rubr. 
of each four ounces, treacle ten pounds, spirits of wine rectified five- 
gallons, water four gallons. 

5. Opii camph. of each ten drachms, coccin. one drachm, kali ppt. 
four scruples, ol. foenic. dulc. one drachm, (or seeds three ounces,) 
proof spirits fourteen pints, water two pints: produce fifteen pints. 

6. Castor one ounce, ol. anisi one drachm, camph. five drachms, 
coccin. one drachm and a half, opii six drachms, proof spirits one 
gallon. 

Daffifs Elixir. Elixir Salutis. Fol. senna? four ounces, ras. 
lign. sant. rad. enulae sice. sem. anisi, sem. carui, sem. coriand. rad; 
glycyrrh. of each two ounces, raisins stoned eight ounces, proof spir- 
its six pounds. This is now sold by the name of Dicey's Daffy. 

2. Tincture Sennce. Tinct. SennWf P. L. Fol. sennse one pound, 
sem. carui one ounce and a half, sem. card. min. half an ounce, raisins 
sixteen ounces, proof spirits one gallon. 

3. T. Sennas, P. D. The same but omitting the raisins. 

4. Sennoa Composita. Fol. sennae two ounces, rad. jalap one 
ounce, sem. coriand. half an ounce, proof spirits three pounds and a 
half by weight, when made, add white sugar four ounces. 

5. Fol. sennae, rad. rhei, sem. anisi, of each two pounds, rad. jalap, 
sem. carui, of each one pound, sant. rub. eight ounces, proof spirits 
ten gallons, brown sugar four pounds. 

6. Rhubarb, East India, forty pounds, sennge fifteen pounds, sant. 
subr. five pounds, sem. carui, sem. anisi, sem. coriand. of each five 
pounds,* cineres Russici eight ounces, spirits of wine rectified ten gal- 
lons; digest three days, then add proof spirits eighty gallons, treacle 
forty-six pounds. 

7. Rad. rhei fourteen pounds, sem. anisi ten pounds, sennae par- 
vae eight pounds, rad. jalap four pounds, sant. rubr. three pounds 
eight ounces, ciner. Russ. two pounds, spirits of wine rectified thirty- 
eight gallons, water eighteen gallons. 

8. Siointon^s Daffy. Rad. jalap three pounds, fol. sennae twelve 
ounces, sem. coriand. sem. anisi, rad. glycyrrh. rad. enulae, of each 
four ounces, spirits of wine rectified, water, of each one gallon. 

9. Rad. tsnatae, ras. guaiacr, sem-. coriand. rad. rhei, rad. glyc'ytrthv 



98 THE ARTIST AND « 

sem. anisi, of each three ounces, raisins one pound eight ounces, proof 
spirits ten pints. 

10. Rad. jalap three pounds, fol. sennse one pound, sem. anisi six 
ounces, sem. coriand. four ounces, cort. aurant. sice, two ounces, 
proof spirits two gallons. 

11. Fol. sennse seven pounds, rad. jalap five pounds, sem. anisi 
fourteen pounds, sem. carui four pounds, sem. fcrnic. dnlc. four 
pounds, brandy coloured two gallons, spirits of v/ine rectified twenty- 
six gallons, water twenty-four gallons; lei. it stand three weeks, strain 
washing out the last portions Avitli water two gallons, then add treacle 
twenty-eight pounds. A common remedy in flatulent cholic, and used 
as a purge by those accustomed to spirit drinking; dose one, two or 
three table spoonfuls. 

Anii-Attrition. Hog's lard ten pounds, camph. four ounces, black 
lead a sufficient quantity to colour it; used to rub on iron to prevent 
rust, and diminish friction. 

Issue Peas. Certe fl. one pound, rad. circum. eight ounces, rad. 
irid. flor. four ounces, tereb. Yenit. a sufficient quantity, make into 
peas. 

2. Cerce flav. six ounces, rad. irid. flor. two ounces, vermilion four 
ounces, tereb. Ten. a sufficient quantity, form into peas. 

3. Certe fl. six ounces, aerug. seris. rad. h.elleb. alhi, of each two 
ounces, cantharidum one ounce, rad. irid. flor. one ounce and a half, 
tereb. Yen. a sufficient quantity; this last is caustic and will open is- 
sues of itself, the others are used to put into issues that begin to close 
up to keep them open longer. 

Issue Plasters. Cerre fl. half a pound, minii, tereb. Chite, of each 
four ounces, cinnab., rad. irid. flor. of each, one ounce, mosch. four 
grains; melted, spread upon linen, polished wilh a moistened calender- 
ing glass rubber, and lastly cut into small squares. 

2. Diachyl. simpl. one pound, rad. irid. flor. one ounce, spread and 
polished. 

3. Diachyl. simpl. two pounds, pic. Burg, sarcocollse of each four 
ounces, tereb. com. one ounce, spread and polished. 

Corn Plaster. C eras .fl. two pounds, pic. Burg, twelve ounces, te- 
reb. comm. six ounces, aerug. ppae. three ounces, spread on cloth, cut 
and polished. 

Almond Paste. Almonds blanched four ounces, lemon juice two 
ounces, oil of almonds three ounces, water one ounce, proof spirits six 
ounces. 

2. Bitter almonds blanched, one pound, white of four eggs, rose 
water, spirits of wine rectified, of each a sufficient quantity. 

Brown Almond Paste'. Bitter almonds blanched, pulp of raisins, 
of each one pound, proof spirits a sufficient quantity; cosmetic, soft- 
ens the skin and prevents chaps. 

Almond Paste. Amygd. dulc. decoct, one pound, amygd. amar. 
decoct, half an ounce, sugar one pound, aq. flor. aurant. a sufficient 
quantity; beat to a paste sufficiently thick not to stick to the fingers. 

Ready made Mustard. Flour of black mustard seed well sifted 
from the bran three pounds, salt one pound, make it up with currant 
wine and add three or four spoonfuls of sugar to each pint. 

Slacking Paste. Rape oil three ounces, oil vitriol three ouncesj 



tradesman's guide. 199 

mix, the next day add treacle, ivory black, of each three pounds, ston© 
blue six ounces, vinegar a sufficient quantity to form a stiff paste; this 
will fill one dozen tin boxes. 

2. Rape oil three ounces, treacle, brown sugar, each nine ounces; 
mix, adding ivory black three pounds, flour paste two pounds; when 
the paste is quite smooth thin it to the consistence of honey with a suf- 
ficient quantity of vinegar: used for making blacking for leather. 

James'' AnakjHic Pills. Pil. Rufi. one pound calc. antimonii lotse 
eight ounces, gum guaiaci eight ounces, m. and make thirty-two pills 
from each drac'um. 

2. PiJl. Ruii. pulv. antimonialis, gum guaiaci, of each one scruple, 
make into twenty pills. 

Amlerson^s Scotch Pills. Aloes Bbds. one pound, rad. helleb. 
nigr. rad. jalapi kali ppi. of each one ounce, oil anise four drachms, 
syr. simp, a sufficient quantity. 

2. Aloes Bbds. two pounds eight ounces, water eight ounces; soft- 
en, add jalap sem. anisi pulv. ebor. ustri, of each eight ounces, ol. anisi 
one ounce. 

3. Aloes (Bermudas) one pound, rad. jalap, flour sulphur ebor. us- 
tri, glycyrrh. of each two ounces, oil anise one drachm, gamboge two 
drachms, sap. castil. four ounces, syr. sp. cervin. a sufficient quantity, 

WarcVs Aniimoiiial Pills. Glass of antimony finely levigated, four 
ounces, dragon's blood one ounce, mountain wine a sufficient quanti- 
ty, make mto pills of one and a half grains each. 

Steer^s Opodeldoc. Sapo cast, three pounds, spirits wine rectified 
three gallons, camph. fourteen oimces, oil rorism. three ounces, ol. 
origani six ounces, aquoe amnion, pur. two pounds. 

2. Sap. alb. one pound, camphor two ounces, oil rorism. four 
drachms, spirits wine rectified two pints. 

3. Sap. alb. one pound, camphor four ounces, ol. origan, ol. rorism. 
of each four drachms, spirits wine rectified q. v. it will bear near six 
pints. 

4. Sap. alb. three pounds, camph. oil rorism. of each six ounces, 
spir. am. ccmp. fourteen ounces, spirits wine rectified four gallons 
and a half. 

5. Sap. alb. four ounces, camph. one ounce, ol. rorism. two drachms,, 
oil origani tiiirty drops, spirits wine rectified one pint, water half a pint. 

Squire^s Elixir^ OpiuQi four ounces, camphor one ounce, eocind. 
one ounce, ol. foeniculi dulc. two drachms, tinct. serpt. one pint, spir- 
its anisi two gallons, water two pints, and add aur. musiv six ounces. 

2. Ra d. glycy. one pound, kali pp. four ounces, cochine-rj one ounce, 
water twelve pints; boil till reduced to one gallon, then add tinct. opii 
twelve ounces, camphor one ounce, spirits wine rectified four pints, 
aur. musiv. twelve ounces. 

3. Opii one ounce and four drachms, camph. one ounce, coccin. 
kali pp. of each one drachm, burnt sugar two ounces, tinct. serpent, 
one pint, sp. anisi two gallons, aur. musiv. eight ounces. 

Essence of Sjjruce is prepared by boiling the twigs of Scotch fir in 
water, and evaporating the decoction till it grows thick; used to flavour 
treacle beer instead of hops. 

Essence of Malt is prepared by infusing malt in water, first boiled, 
and then cooled till it reflect the image of a person's face in it, pouring 



2!QJD THE ARTIST AND* 

©ff tbe infusion, and evaporating it to the consistence of new lioney; 
used in sea voyages and places where malt cannot be procured to 
make beer. 

Ink Poicder. Green vitriol one pound; galls two pounds, gum Arab, 
eight ounces: two ounces make a pint of ink. 

Marking Ink. Lunar caustic two drachms, distilled water six oun- 
ces, dissolve and add gum water two drachms, dissolve also natron 
ppm. half an ounce in water four ounces, and add gum water half an 
ounce; wet the linen on which you mtend to write with this last solu* 
tion, dry it, and then write upon it with the first liquor, using a clean 
pen. 

Red Sealing Wax. Gum lac two pounds, vermilion four ounces, 
ol. tereb. ol. olive, of each eight ounces, roll in cakes and pohsh with 
a rag till quite cold. 

2. Shell-lac five pounds, resinse fl. three pounds, ol. tereb. one 
pound, vermiHon twelve ounces, chalk ppd. four ounces. 

3. ResinsB j9. six pounds, shell-lac two pounds, tereb. Yenit. two 
pounds, vermilion eight ounces. 

4. Shell-lac, resinae fl. of each four pounds, tereb. Ven. one pound; 
add vermilion or bole Armen. ppd. q. p. 

Black Ball. Beeswax eight ounces, tallow one ounce, gum Arab, 
one ounce, lampblack a sufficient quantity. 

Court Plaster, or Sticking Plaster. Black silk is stained and 
brushed over with a solution of one ounce of isinglass in twelve oun- 
ces of proof spirits, to which two ounces of tine. Benzoini is added, 
when dry this is repeated five times more, after which two coats are 
given it of a solution of four ounces of tereb. Chiae, in six ounces of 
tine. Benzoini, which renders it less liable to crack; but some finish it 
with a simple tincture of black balsam of Peru. 

Lip Salve. Cera alb. four ounces; ol. olive five ounces; sperma- 
ceti four drachms; ol. lavend. twenty drops, rad. anchusae two ounces. 

2. 01. olive opt. two ounces, cera alb. spermaceti, each three oz. 
iad. anchusse six drachms; melt, strain; add ol. lign. rhod. three drops. 

3. 01. amygd. six ounces, spermaceti three ounces, cera alb. two 
ounces; rad. anchusae one ounce; balsam Peruv. two drachms. 

4. 01. amygd. spermaceti, cera alb. sacch. candi albi, of each p. 
aeq. this is white — the others are red. 

01. Succini Reductum. 01. succin. one pound, petrol, bbd. two 
pounds. 

British Oil. 01. tereb. eight ounces, petrol, bbd. four ounces, ol. 
rorism. four drachms. 

01. tereb. five pounds, asphalt, twelve ounces, ol. lateritii eight 
ounces. 

01. tereb. five pounds, ol. laterit. ver. eight ounces. 

Huile Antique a la Violette. Oil of Ben. olives, or almonds, scent- 
ed with ovia, in the same manner as in making essence de jasamin, 
and then pressed out of the wool or cotton. 

Huile Antique au melle fieurs. Oil of Ben. or almonds mixed with 
different essences to the fancy of the perfumer. 

Artificial Spa Water. Prepared natron seven grains, magnesia 
alb. one scruple, iron filings three grains, common salt one grain, wa- 



^tradesman's GDIDiE* I^^l 

ler three pounds, and impregnate it with gas from laiarhle powdet anct 
oil of vitriol, of each ten scruples, sufficiently diluted with water. 

Artificial Pyrmont Water. Epsom salts fifteen grains, common 
salt five grains, magnesia alb. ten grains, iron filings five grains, wa- 
ter three pounds, and impregnate it with the gas from marble powder 
and oil of vitriol, of each seven drachms. 

Artificial ShcHz Water. Common salt one drachm, magnesia alb. 
one scruple, natron ppm. fifteen grains, chalk seven grains, water 
three pounds, atid impregnate with the gas from marble powder and 
oil of vitriol of each six drachms. 

A method of making a Superior Black Writing Ink. Take four 
ounces of\he best galls, copperas calcined to whiteness two ounces 
and a half, and a quart of rain water or stale beer; let them infuse in it 
cold for twenty-four hours, after which add an ounce and a quarter of 
gum Arabic, and preserve it in a stone jar covered with paper. 

Permanent Red Ink for marking Linen. Take half an ounce of 
vermilion and a drachm of sait of steel, or copperas, let them be finely 
levigated with linseed oil to the degree of limpidity required for the oc- 
casion. This ink it is said, will perfectly resist the effect of acids, as 
well as of all alkaline lyes. It may be made of other colours by sub- 
stituting the proper articles instead of vermilion: used with either types, 
a hair pencil, or even a pen, but in the latter case it will be necessary to 
thin it still more than it can be done by oil, by the addition of spirits of 
tm-pentine, so as to enable it to flow. 

Wine Test. When wine becomes partly acetous, called pricked 
wine, the disagreeable taste is often corrected by sugar of lead; it is 
then poisonous, and the fraud ought to be detected. This may be 
done by dropping it into a little water, charged with sulphuretted hy- 
drogen gas; it will immediately become a dark brown. 

To turn Wine into Vinegar in less than three hours. Put in the 
wine a red beet, and it will be quite sour and true vinegar in less than 
three hours. 

To restore such Wine to its first taste. Take off the red beet, and 
in its stead put a cabbage root into that wine, and it will return to its 
primary taste in the same space of time. 

Easy method of securing Furs and Woollens from moths. Sprinkle 
the furs or woollen stuffs, as well as the drawers or boxes in which 
they are kept, with spirits turpentine, the unpleasant scent of which 
will speedily evaporate on exposure of the stuffs to the air: some per- 
sons place sheets of paper moistened with spirits turpentine, over, un- 
der, or between pieces of cloth, &c. and find it a very effectual method. 

Easy and effectual method of preserving Eggs perfacibj fresh for 
twelve months. Having provided small casks like oyster barrels, fill 
them with fresh laid eggs, then pour into each cask, the head being 
first taken oitt, as much cold thick lime water as will fill up all the void 
spaces between the eggs, and likewise completely cover them. The 
thicker the lime water is made, the better, provided it will fill up 
all the interstices and be liquid at the top of the cask. This done, 
lay on the head of the cask lightly. NoTurther care is necessary, than 
merely to prevent the lime from growing too hard, by adding occa- 
sionally a little common water on the surface, should it seem so dis- 
posed, and keeping the cask from heat and frost. The eggs when ta- 

Bb 



2©2 THE ARTIST AN» 

ken out tor use, are to be washed from the adhering lime, with a little 
cold water, when they vail have every appearance of fresh eggs. 

To iri-event the Oil of a Lamp from smoking. Distil some onions^ 
and put of the distilled liquor at the bottom of the lamp, and the oil 
over it, then you will see the oil give no offensive smoke. 

To make an incomhustihle Wick. Take a long piece of feathered 
alum, which cut of what size you like, and bore in its length several 
holes with a large needle; then put this wick in the lamp, the oil will 
ascend through these holes, and if you light it you will see the effect 
efit. 

Curious and simple manner of keeping Apricots, Peaches^ Plums, 
SfC. fresh all the year, — By J\I. Lemei-y. Beat well up together equal 
quantities of honey and spring v^'ater, pour it into an earthen vessel, 
put in the fruits all freshly gathered, and cover them up quite close. 
IT hen any of the fruit is taken out, wash it in cold water and it is fit 
for immediate use. 

Blacking. Ivory black, treacle of each two pounds, neat's foot 
oil eight ounces, oil of vitriol one ounce, gum traga. two ounces, vin- 
egar six pints; mix. 

2. Ivory black six pounds, vinegar, water of each two gallons, tre- 
acle eight pounds, oil of vitriol one pound. 

3. Ivory black, one ounce, small beer or water one pound, brown 
sugar, gum Arabic of each half an ounce, or if required to be made 
shining, the white of an egg. 

4. Ivory black four ounces, treacle eight ounces,vinegar one pound, 
used to black leather. 

Ready mode of mending Cracks in Stoves, Pijjes, and Iron Ovens, 
as jjractised in Germany. When a crack is discovered in a stove, 
through which the fire or smoke penetrates, the aperture may be com- 
pletely closed in a moment, with a composition consisting of wood 
ashes and common salt, made up into a paste, with a little water, and 
plastered over the crack. The good effect is equally certain, wheth- 
er the stove, &c. be hot or cold. 

Liquid io take out Spots or Stains of ink, red wine, iron moidd, 
mildew, c^-c. Mix an ouncf^ each of sal ammoniac and salt of tartar, 
in a quart bottle of water, and keep it for use. Soak and wash out in 
this liquid the table linen, &;c. thus spotted or stained, and after the 
colour is discharged, get them up in the usual manner, and there will 
remain no visible effect of the injury. 

Composition for preserving Wood against injury from Fire Works. 
Put into a pot equal quantities of finely pulverized iron filings, brick 
dust and ashes, pour over them size or glue water, set the whole 
near the fire, and when warm, stir them well together; with this li- 
quid composition or size, wash over all the wood work which might 
be in danger, and on its getting dry, give it a second coat, when it 
will be sufficient proof against damage by fire. 

Cement Water Proof. Take two parts plaster of Paris to one of 
good lime, made fine then with oil to a thin paste. If to stop cracks 
round chimnies, &c. make it harder; and when dry, another coat that 
is thinner To mend broken marble or earthen, make it quite thin and 
give it time to dry. No water can penetrate it. 



tradesman's guide. 

CHAPTER XXXVII. 

MENSURATION.— LOG TABLE. 

Diameter 10 ft. in 11 ft. in 12 ft. in 13ft. in 14ft. in 15f!.in 
in inches, length, length, length, length, length, lengt! , 



:03 

/ 1 



15 


90 


99 


108 


117 


126 


135 


16 


100 


110 


120 


130 


140 


150 


17 


125 


137 


150 


162 


175 


187 


IS 


155 


170 


186 


202 


216 


232 


19 


165 


179 


197 


214 


230 


247 


20 


172 


189 


206 


224 


246 


258 


21 


184 


202 


220 


238 


256 


276 


22 


194 


212 


232 


263 


294 


291 


23 


219 


240 


278 


315 


332 


353 


24 


250 


276 


300 


325 


350 


375 


25 


280 


308 


336 


364 


392 


420 


26 


299 


323 


346 


375 


404 


448 


27 


327 


367 


392 


425 


457 


490 


28 


360 


396 


432 


462 


604 


540 


29 


376 


414 


451 


488 


526 


564 


30 


412 


452 


504 


535 


576 


618 


31 


428 


471 


513 


558 


602 


642 


32 


451 


496 


541 . 


587 


631 


676 


33 


490 


539 


588 


637 


686 


735 


34 


532 


585 


638 


691 


744 


798 


35 


582 


640 


698 


752 


805 


863 


36 


593 


657 


717 


821 


836 


889 



This Table shows the number of feet of boards, any log will make 
when the diameter is from 15 to 33 inches at the smallest end, and 
from 10 to 15 feet in length. 

OF STEAM. 
Woolf 's table, of the relative pressure per square inch, the tempera- 
ture and expansibility of steam at different degrees of heat above the 
boiUng point of water, beginning with th§;temperature of steam of an 
elastic force equal to five pounds per square inch, and extending to 
steam able to sustain forty pounds on the square inch. 



pounds per 


Degrees of 






square inch. 


heat. 


Steam of an 


5 


requires 


227|- 


and at these 


5 


times its 


elastic force 


6 


to be 


230i 


respective 


6 


volume & 


predominating 


7 


maintai- 


232| 


degrees of 


7 


continue e- 


over the pres- 


8 


ned by a 


235i 


heat steam 


8 


qual in its 


sure of the at- 


9 


tempe- 


237i 


can expand 


9 


elasticity 


mosphere up- 


10 


rature e- 


239^ 


itself to a- 


10 


to the pres- 


fm a safety 


15 


qual to 


250^ 


bout 


15 


sure of the 


valve, 


20 


about 


259i 




20 


atmos- 




25 




267 




25 


phere. 




30 




273 




30 






35 




278 




35 






40 




282 




40 





S4 THE AllTISf AND 

SOLID MEASURE OF ROUND TIMBER. 

S ft. 9 ft. 10ft. lift. 12ft. 13ft. 14ft. 15ft. 16ft. 
long long long long long long long long long 



diara 
in 






o 

o 


c 
p 

■■Ts 


o 
c 

F 


o 

o 

c 


o 


o 

1 

QQ 


o 


6 


16 


1 8 


2 


2 1 


2 3 


25 


2 7 


29 


3 1 


7 


2 1 


2 4 


27 


29 


3 2 


3 5 


37 


40 


4 2 


8 


2 8 


3 1 


3 5 


3 8 


42 


45 


4 8 


5 2 


5 5 


9 


3 5 


39 


44 


4 8 


53 


57 


61 


66 


7 


10 


43 


4 9 


5 4 


60 


65 


71 


7 6 


8 1 


8 7 


il 


5 3 


59 


66 


74 


79 


8 5 


9 3-^ 


9 8 


10 5 


12 


6 3 


7 1 


78 


8 6 


94 


10 2 


110 


11 8 


12 5 


IS 


73 


8 5 


94 


10 


11 1 


119 


12 8 


13 8 


14 6 


14 


85 


96 


10 6 


117 


12 b 


13 9 


14 9 


16 


17 


15 


98 


11 1 


12 4 


13 6 


14 9 


16 1 


17 2 


18 5 


19 7 


16 


11 2 


12 6 


14 


15 3 


16 8 


182 


19 5 


20 8 


22 3 


17 


12 6 


14 1 


15 7 


17 3 


18 9 


20 4 


21 8 


23 5 


25 


1& 


14 1 


15 9 


17 7 


19 4 


21 3 


22 8 


24 5 


26 4 


28 2 


19 


15 7 


17 7 


19 7 


21 6 


23 5 


25 5 


•27 3 


29 3 


31 3 


20 


17 5 


19 6 


21 6 


23 9 


26 2 


28 2 


30 3 


32 5 


34 6 


21 


19 2 


21 5 


23 8 


26 3 


28 7 


31 


33 3 


35 8 


38 1 


22 


21 


23 6 


26 3 


28 8 


31 5 


34 


36 6 


39 2 


41 8 


23 


22 9 


25 9 


.28 8 


31 5 


34 5 


37 3 


40 2 


42 8 


45 7 


24 


25 


28 4 


31 3 


35 3 


37 6 


40 6 


43 6 


46 7 


49 6 


25 


27 2 


30 7 


34 


37 3 


40 7 


44 


47 4 


50 7 


53 9 


26 


29 4 


32 1 


36 8 


40 4 


44 


47 7 


51 3 


54 8 


58 3 


27 


31 6 


35 6 


39 7 


43 2 


47 4 


51 3 


55 


58 9 


63 


28 


33 9 


38 4 


42 5 


46 6 


51 


55 2 


59 2 


63 5 


67 6 


29 


36 3 


41 


45 5 


50 


54 5 


58 9 


63 4 


68 


72 4 


SO 


39 


43 9 


49 


53 5 


58 4 


63 4 


68 


73 3 


77 7 


SI 


41 8 


47 


52 2 


57 2 


62 5 


67 7 


72 7 


78 2 


83 3 


S2 


44 5 


52 2 


55 6 


61 2 


66 7 


72 4 


77 5 


83 5 


88 7 


33 


47 2 


53 3 


59 1 


65 


710 


76 8 


82 5 


■88 6 


94 5 


34 


50 3 


56 3 


62 9 


69 


75 3 


81 4 


87 5 


94 3 


99 6 


35 


53 


59 8 


66 5 


73 


79 8 


86 4 


92 8 


99 5 


106 8 


36 


56 


63 2 


70 5 


79 


84 4 


91 3 


93 


105 5 


112 9 


37 


59 4 


67 


74 5 


81 8 


89 5 


96 8 


104 7 


112 


119 5 


38 


62 8 


70 6 


78 8 


86 3 


94 4 


102 5 


110 


117 7 


126 


39 


66 3 


74 4 


83 3 


91 


99 3 


108 3 


115 9 


124 7 


132 6 


40 


69 6 


78 3 


87 3 


95 7 104 4 


113 4 


124 


130 8 


139 5 



By the above Table the solid measure of any stick of round timber, 
can be found at sight from 6 to 40 inches in diameter, and from 8 to 
46 feet in length. It rises one inch in diameter and one foot in length 
at a time. The left hand column on the first page gives the inches in 
diameter, and the other columns the contents,which are given in cubic 
feet and tenths of a foot. Over the top of the columns is placed th© 
length of the stick, and to find the contents of any stick, first find the 
length at the top, then the inches in diameter at the left hand column, 
wid against it uader the length, to the right vdll be found the contentg. 



tradesman'^ guide. 2ftfr 

MEASURE OF ROUND TIMBER— Continued. 

17 ft. 18 ft. 19 ft. 20 ft. 21ft. 22 ft. 23 ft. 24 ft. 25 ft. 26 ft. 
long long long long long long long long long long 





o 
» 


o 


O 
o 

s 

2 


o 

1 


o 


o 

a' 

13 

CO 


O 

o 


1 


o 


3 3 


5 5 


37 


3*9 


4 1 


4 3 


4 5 


4 7 


49 


3 1 


4 5 


48 


5 1 


5 3 


57 


5 9 


61 


6 4 


67 


69 


5 9 


63 


66 


7 


73 


7 7 


8 


8 4 


8 8 


9 1 


7 5 


80 


84 


9 


94 


9 7 


10 2 


10 3 


11 1 


11 5 


9 3 


98 


10 4 


11 


11 5 


12 1 


12 6 


13 2 


13 7 


14 2 


11 2 


119 


12 6 


is 3 


13 9 


14 6 


15 3 


15 9 


16 6 


17 S 


13 4 


14 2 


15 


15 8 


16 6 


17 4 


18 2 


19 1 


19 8 


20 5 


16 7 


17 1 


17 6 


18 5 


19 5 


20 4 


21 3 


22 2 


23 


23 9 


18 3 


19 3 


20 7 


21 4 


22 5 


23 6 


24 5 


25 7 


26 7 


27 8 


21 1 


22 3 


23 6 


24 7 


26 2 


27 4 


28 6 


29 7 


31 


32 3 


23 8 


25 2 


26 7 


28 2 


29 5 


31 


32 3 


33 7 


35 


36 5 


26 8 


28 3 


30 


31 6 


33 3 


34 9 


36 3 


38 


39 6 


41 


30 1 


31 9 


33 6 


35 4 


37 2 


39 


40 7 


42 5 


44 3 


46 


33 5 


35 4 


37 5 


39 4 


41 5 


43 3 


45 2 


47 3 


49 4 


51 2 


37 2 


39 2 


41 5 


43 7 


46' 


48 3 


50 3 


52 5 


54 7 


56 7 


40 9 


43 1 


45 6 


48 4 


50 4 


53 


55 2 


57 7 


60 


62 5 


44 7 


47 4 


50 2 


52 7 


55 2 


58 1 


60 7 


63 5 


66 


68 r 


49 1 


51 8 


54 8 


57 7 


60 8 


63 7 


66 2 


69 5 


72 3 


75 2 


53 3 


56 1 


59 5 


62 9 


66 2 


69 4 


72 3 


75 4 


78 6 


81 9 


57 7 


6l 4 


64 8 


68 3 


71 8 


75 3 


78 5 


82 3 


85 7 


88 6 


62 6 


66 4 


70 2 


74 


77 6 


81 5 


85 3 


88 7 


93 5 


96 


67 5 


71 5 


75 4 


79 5 


83 5 


87 7 


915 


96 


99 3 


103 4 


72 6 


77 2 


81 3 


85 6 


90 


94 5 


98 5 


103 2 


107 3 


111 3 


77 7 


82 4 


87 2 


91 5 


96 3 


101 


105 6 


110 7 114 8 


119 5 


83 5 


88 4 


96 5 


98 5 


103 4 


108 8 


113 5 


118 6 


123 3 


128 


89 4 


94 5 


99 5 


105 3 


111 


116 


121 4 


126 8 


131 5 


137 


95 5 


101 


106 8 


112 4 


118 


124 


129 5 


135 5 


140 6 145 5 


101 5 


107 3 


113 4 


119 5 


125 4 


131 5 


138 


144 


149 


155 


107 5 


113 8 


120 


126 7 133 139 4 


145 7 


152 5 


158 6 164 


114 


120 5 


127 2 


135 


141 


147 7 154 7 


l6l 5 


167 5 


174 


120 6 127 5 


135 1 


142 2 


149 


156 5 


163 5 


171 178 185 


127 6 135 3 143 150 9 


157 6 164 5 


173 5 


181 5 


188 


195 5 


134 8 


142 6 


150 8 


159 


166 5 


174 5 


183 


191 198 206 



142 150 5 159 l67 9 170 184 4 192 5 202 208 5 217 
i49 5 158 167 176 185 193 5 204 213 2 218 5 228 G 



:2m 



THE ARTIST ,ANb 

MEASURE OF ROUND TIMBER— Continued. 



27 ft. 28 ft. 29 ft. 30 ft. 31 ff 32 ft. 33 ft. 34 ft. 35 ft. 36 ft. 
long long long long long long long long long long 

9 o o o o o o o o o 

222 o a> o o cb a" o 

OOP S.5.S- ^ ^ ^ ^ 

53 55 57 59 61 63 65 67 69 71 

7 2 75 78 80 83 86 88 91 94 96 
5 4 9 7 10 1 10 3 10 8 111 115 119 12 3 12 6 
119 12 4 12 8 13 1 13 7 14 2 14 6 15 1 15 5 15 9 
14 8 15 4 15 9 18 4 17 1 17 6 18 2 18 7 19 3 19 7 
17 9 18 6 19 2 19 8 20 6 212 217 22 5 23 2 23 7 
213 22 1 23 23 6 24 4 25 4 26 1 26 7 27 7 28 4 
24 9 25 8 26 7 27 7 28 6 29 5 30 6 314 32 3 33 3 
28 9 30 1 312 32 1 33 3 34 3 35 4 36 5 37 6 38 7 
33 5 ' 34 7 36 1 37 3 38 5 39 7 41 1 42 2 43 3 44 5 
37 9 39 3 40 7 42 43 4 45 46 3 47 7 49 2 50 4 
42 6 44 2 45 6 47 2 48 6 50 5 62 53 4 55 2 66 5 
47 8 49 7 513 52 7 54 6 56 5 58 3 60 1 62 63 6 
53 3 55 1 57 58 8 611 63 65 67 69 70 9 
59 2 613 63 5 65 5 67 2 70 2 72 2 74 4 76 7 79 
€5 67 2 69 7 72 75 5 76 7 79 5 817 84 4 86 5 
71 5 74 76 5 79 82 84 5 87 2 89 5 92 5 95 4 
78 5 810 83 7 86 5 89 5 92 4 95 5 98 3 1012 104 5 
85 3 88 912 94 2 97 5 100 8 104 107 110 5 113 5 
92 5 95 6 99 102 7 106 109 5 113 115 7 119 5 123 
99 7 103 5 107 5 1112 114 7 118 5 122 125 S 129 5 133 
107 7 HI 7 115 5 119 4 123 3 127 5 131 5 135 2 139 5 142 5 
116 120 124 7 128 8 132 7 137 5 141 5 145 5 150 3 164 4 
124 2 128 7 133 138 142 146 4 150 6 155 5 1610 165 
133 2 136 143 1 148 152 4 157 162 6 167 172 5 177 5 
142 3 i47 5 152 7 158 3 163 169 174 179 182 4 190 
152 1 157 3 163 169 174 180 185 5 191 197 202 
161 8 167 173 179 7 185 4 191 2 197 202 5 208 214 
171 5 178 184 190 5 196 202 5 203 2 214 3 220 227 
182 188 7 194 7 202 5 208 214 220 5 227 234 240 
192 5 199 206 213 218 5 226 5 233 5 240 247 255 
206 211 217 5 225 232 5 240 247 5 254 3 262 5 269 5 
214 1 222 1 228 5 236 i 244 253 5 261 5 268 276 4 284 
226 3 234 242 251 258 267 275 283 2 292 5 300 
237 5 245 3 254 5 263 7 272 280 288 5 297 3 206 4 316 2 



tradesman's guide. ^97 



MEASURE OF ROUND TIMBER— Continued. 

37 ft. 38 ft. 39 ft. 40 ft. 41 ft. 42 ft. 43 ft. 44 ft. 45 ft. 46 ih 
long long long long long long long long long long 



o 

o 

m 


t 


o 
o 

So" 


o 

3 
S 


1 

CO 


o 


I 
o 


O 
o 

» 


1 


1 

So" 


73 


74 


77 


78 


80 


82 


84 


87 


88 


9a 


9 9 


10 2 


10 4 


10 3 


10 5 


11 3 


11 5 


11 7 


12 


12 3 


12 9 


13 3 


13 7 


14 


14 3 


14 7 


15 1 


15 4 


15 7 


16 1 


16 3 


16 8 


17 3 


17 7 


18 1 


19 


19 1 


19 4 


19 8 


20 4 


20 3 


20 7 


21 6 


21 7 


22 3 


22 9 


23 5 


24 


24 5 


25 3 


24 4 


25 2 


25 7 


26 4 


27 7 


28 7 


28 4 


29 2 


29 6 


30 5 


29 2 


29 9 


30 8 


31 5 


32 2 


33 


33 9 


34 7 


35 4 


36 4 


34 


35 


36 1 


36 8 


37 7 


38 7 


39 7 


40 5 


41 4 


42 5 


39 6 


40 7 


41 7 


42 7 


43 5 


44 7 


45 9 


46 9 


48 


49 4 


45 8 


47 


48 4 


49 5 


50 6 


51 7 


52 3 


53 2 


55 5 


57 


51 7 


53 3 


54 5 


55 7 


57 


58 5 


60 4 


61 5 


62 8 


64 6 


58 2 


59 7 


62 5 


62 9 


64 2 


66 


67 7 


69 4 


70 7 


72 7 


65 4 


67 


69 


70 6 


72 3 


74 2 


76 


77 6 


79 5 


815 


72 8 


74 7 


76 7 


78 7 


80 4 


82 5 


84 6 


86 5 


88 4 


90 8 


81 


83 3 


85 5 


87 5 


89 


91 5 


94 5 


96 3 


98 5 


100 5 


88 8 


91 3' 


93 7 


96 


98 4 


100 8 


103 4 


105 5 


108 3 


110 5 


97 7 


100 5 


103 2 


106 


108 6 


111 


113 5 


116 


118 4 


121 5 


107 3 


110 


113 


115 5 


119 5 


121 3 


124 5 


127 3 


129 5 


133 


116 6 


119 5 


123 


126 


129 


132 


135 


138 7 


141 5 


144 5 


127 


130 


133 3 


!37 3 


140 4 


143 5 


147 3 


150 5 


153 7 


157 


137 5 


141 5 


144 4 


148 


151 5 


155 


159 


162 7 


166 5 


170 5 


147 5 


151 


155 5 


159 5 


163 


167 


171 


175 


179 


183 


159 


163 


167 


172 


175 2 


180 2 


184 7 


188 5 


193 


197 


170 7 


174 5 


178 


182 


188 


192 8 


197 


201 5 


2130 


211 


183 


187 5 


192 5 


197 


202 


206 5 


2tl 5 


215 


221 


225 


195 1 


200 5 


205 


211 


2145 


220 


225 2 


221 


23 


242 


207 2 


212 4 


218 


224 


228 


334 5 


241 


245 4 


252 5 


257 5 


221 


226 5 


232 5 


238 2 


243 5 


249 


256 1 


262 


267 5 


273 



234 239 246 253 258 264 271 5 276 5 283 5 289 
247 254 262 268 274 282 1 287 294 301 5 307 5 
262 5 267 5 276 283 289 296 304 310 3 317 5 325 
276 5 285 293 5 300 307 314 5 322 7 328 336 5 344 
292 5 300 309 316 5 324 332 1 337 5 345 355 363 2 
309 316 5 326 2 334 341 2 349 357 1 366 4 375 384 
325 333 341 4 349 5 359 367 3 377 385 2 394 403 I 



M$ THE AltriST AXD 

A Table, showing the rates a boat weighing with its load dReeti 
tons, and a wagon of the same weight, is impelled the one on a ca- 
nal and the other on a railway, which is stated in pounds and in 
horse power — reckoning one horse power equal to 180 pounds. 
Boat on a Canal. JFaB'on on Railroad, 



per hour. 


Power in lbs. 


Horse 


power. 


Power in pounds. 


Horse power. 


2 


33 


i 




100 


h 


4 


133 






102 




6 


300 


4 




105 


i 


8 


533 


3 




109 


i 


12 


1200 


7 




120 


1 


16 


2133 


12 




137 


1 


20 


3325 


18 




156 


1 



Dr. Armstrong observes, that a horse travelling at the usual rate 
that wagons move, would with ease, under favourable circumstances, 
draw twenty tons; but Mr. Fulton says, that five tons to a horse is 
the average work on railways, descending at the rate of three miles 
per hour, and one ton upwards with the same speed. 

Mr. Telford, an experienced engineer, observes, that on a railway 
well constructed and laid, with a declivity of fifty feet in a mile, one 
horse will readily take down wagons containing twelve or fifteen tons, 
and bring back the ■same with four tons in them. 

The following is a list of the average weight of pipes of different 
diameters in the clear, with the thickness required to bear a pressure 
of 300 feet head of water. 

Diameter Thickness of pipe Weight per running yd: 



in inches. 


in inch 


2 


T^ 


3 


■A 


4 


-U 


6 


tV 


8 


tV 


10 


tV 


12 


f' 


16 


• if 


20 


a 



cwt. 


qrs. 


lbs. 





1 


2 





1 


16 





2 


4 


1 








1 


1 


21 


2 





8 


2 


2 


18 


3 


2 





§ 









SOLID MEASURE OF SQUARE TIMBER. 

By the following table the solid contents, and the value of any piece 
or quantity of timber, stone, &c. may be found at sight, from six to 
nineteen and a half inches, the side of the square, or one fourth of the 
girth, from fourteen to sixty feet in length. 

It rises from six, half an inch at a time, to nineteen and a half 
inches, and from fourteen, one foot at a time, till it rises to sixty. 

The number of inches which the side of each stick measures, are 
placed at the top commencing next to the left hand column on the first 
page. These columns give the contents of each stick, and the first col- 
umn which runs from the top to the bottom, the length. Half feet are 
not reckoned; that is, when a stick measures thirty cubic feet and five 
inches, it is called only thirty feet; if thirty feet and seven inches, it ia 
reckoned thirty-one feet. We believe this method is practised in all 
the cities in the United States and Canada. 



tradesmak's guide-. , 2^9 

Feet Side Side Side Side Side Side Side Side Side Side Side Side Side Side 

in 6 6 1-2 7 7 1-2 8 8 1-2 9 9 1-2 10 10 1-2 11 111-2 12 12 1-2 

length, in. inch. inch. inch. inch. inch. inch. inch. inch. inch. inch. inch. inch, inchv 



14 


3 


4 


5 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


9 


10 


12 


13 


14 


15 


15 


4 


4 


5 


6 


6 


7 


S 


9 


10 


11 


12 


14 


15 


16 


16 


4 


5 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


n 


12 


1.3 


14 


16 


17 


17 


4 


5 


6 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


12 


13 


14 


15 


17 


18 


18 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


19 


11 


13 


14 


15 


16 


13 


19 


19 


5 


6 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


12 


14 


14 


16 


37 


19 


21 


20 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


15 


15 


17 


18 


20 


22 


21 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


12 


13 


15 


16 


17 


19 


21 


23 


22 


5 


6 


7 


8 


10 


11 


12 


14 


^G 


17 


18 


20 


22 


24 


23 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


11 


J3 


14 


l6 


17 


19 


21 


23 


25 


24 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


12 


13 


15 


if 


18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


25 


6 


7 


8 


10 


11 


12 


14 


15 


17 


19 


21 


23 


25 


27 


26 


6 


8 


9 


10 


11 


13 


14 


l6 


18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


28 


27 


7 


8 


9 


10 


12 


13 


15 


17 


19 


20 


22 


25 


27 


29 


28 


7 


8 


9 


11 


12 


14 


l6 


18 


20 


21 


23 


25 


28 


30 


29 


7 


9 


10 


11 


13 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


26 


29 


3). 


30 


7 


9 


10 


11 


13 


15 


17 


19 


21 


23 


25 


27 


30 


33 


31 


8 


9 


10 


12 


14 


15 


17 


19 


21 


23 


26 


28 


31 


34 


32 


8 


9 


11 


12 


11 


16 


18 


20 


22 


24 


^27 


29 


32 


35 


33 


8 


10 


11 


13 


14 


16 


18 


20 


23 


25 


27 


30 


33 


36 


34 


8 


10 


11 


13 


15 


17 


19 


21 


24 


26 


28 


31 


34 


37 


36 


9 


10 


12 


13 


15 


17 


19 


22 


24 


27 


29 


32 


35 


38 


36 


9 


11 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


23 


25 


27 


30 


33 


36 


39 


37 


9 


11 


12 


14 


16 


18 


21 


23 


26 


28 


31 


34 


37 


40 


38 


9 


11 


13 


15 


17 


19 


21 


24 


27 


29 


32 


35 


38 


41 


39 


10 


11 


13 


15 


17 


19 


22 


24 


27 


SO 


33 


36 


39 


42 


40 


10 


12 


13 


15 


18 


20 


22 


25 


28 


30 


33 


36 


40 


43 


41 


10 


12 


14 


l6 


18 


21 


23 


25 


29 


31 


34 


37 


41 


44 


42 


10 


12 


14 


16 


18 


21 


23 


26 


29 


32 


35 


38 


42 


45 


43 


11 


13 


14 


17 


19 


21 


24 


27 


30 


33 


36 


39 


43 


46 


44 


11 


13 


15 


17 


19 


22 


25 


27 


30 


34 


37 


40 


44 


48 


45 


11 


13 


15 


17 


20 


22 


25 


28 


31 


35 


38 


41 


45 


49 


46 


11 


13 


15 


18 


20 


23 


26 


29 


32 


35 


sa 


42 


46 


50 


47 


12 


14 


16 


18 


21 


23 


26 


29 


33 


36 


39 


43 


47 


51 


48 


12 


14 


16 


19 


21 


24 


27 


30 


33 


37 


40 


44 


48 


52 


49 


12 


14 


16 


19 


22 


24 


OT 


30 


34 


33 


41 


45 


49 


53 


50 


12 


15 


17 


19 


22 


25 


28^ 


31 


34 


38 


42 


46 


50 


54 


51 


13 


15 


17 


20 


22 


25 


28 


32' 


35 


39 


43 


47 


51 


55 


-52 


13 


15 


17 


20 


23 


26 


29^ 


32 


36 


40 


43 


48 


52 


56 


53 


13 


16 


18 


20 


23 


26 


30 


33 


37 


41 


44 


49 


53 


57 


54 


13 


16 


18 


21 


24 


27 


31 


34 


37 


42 


45 


50 


54 


58 


55 


14 


16 


18 


21 


<■« 1 


27 


31 


iM 


GS 


42 


46 


51 


55 


59 


56 


14 


16 


19 


22 


25 


28 


32 


35 


39 


43 


47 


52 


56 


60 


5r 


14 


17 


19 


22 


25 


28 


32 


36 


39 


44 


48 


53 


57 


62 


58 


14 


17 


19 


22 


26 


29 


33 


36 


40 


44 


49 


54 


58 


63 


59 


15 


17 


20 


23 


.26 


29 


33 


37 


41 


45 


49 


55 


59 


64 


60 


15 


18 


20 


23 


26 


30 


34 


o'f 


41 


46 


50 


56 


60 


65 



210 THE ARTIST A^D 



Side 

13 

iiich, 


Side Side 
13 1-2 14 
. inch. inch. 


Side Side 
14 1-2 15 
, inch. inch. 


Side Side 
15 1-5 16 
inch. inch. 


Side 
16 1-2 
inch. 


Side 

17 

inch. 


Side Side 
17 1-2 18 
inch. inch. 


Side 
18 1-2 
inch. 


Side 

: 19 ] 

inch. 


Side 
191-2 
inch. 


16 


17 


19 


20 


22 


23 


25 


26 


28 


30 


31 


33 


35 


37 


17 


19 


20 


22 


23 


25 


26 


28 


30 


32 


34 


35 


37 


39 


19 


20 


22 


23 


25 


26 


28 


30 


32 


34 


36 


38 


40 


42 


20 


21 


23 


25 


26 


28 


30 


32 


34 


36 


38 


40 


42 


45 


21 


23 


24 


26 


28 


30 


32 


34 


36 


38 


40 


43 


45 


47 


22 


24 


26 


27 


29 


31 


34 


36 


38 


40 


43 


45 


47 


50 


23 


25 


27 


29 


31 


33 


35 


38 


40 


42 


45 


47 


50 


53 


25 


26 


28 


30 


33 


35 


37 


39 


42 


44 


47 


50 


52 


55 


26 


28 


30 


32 


34 


36 


39 


41 


44 


47 


49 


52 


55 


58 


-27 


29 


31 


33 


36 


38 


41 


43 


46 


49 


52 


54 


57 


60 


28 


30 


32 


35 


37 


40 


42 


45 


48 


51 


54 


57 


60 


63 


29 


31 


34 


36 


39 


41 


44 


47 


50 


53 


56 


59 


62 


66 


30 


33 


35 


38 


40 


43 


46 


49 


52 


55 


58 


62 


65 


68 


32 


34 


37 


39 


42 


45 


48 


51 


54 


57 


61 


64 


67 


70 


?3 


35 


38 


41 


44 


46 


50 


53 


56 


60 


63 


66 


70 


74 


34 


36 


39 


42 


45 


48 


51 


55 


68 


62 


65 


69 


72 


76 


35 


38 


41 


44 


47 


50 


53 


56 


60 


64 


67 


71 


75 


79 


36 


39 


42 


45 


48 


51 


55 


58 


62 


66 


70 


73 


. 77 


82 


38 


^0 


43 


46 


50 


53 


57 


60 


64 


68 


72 


76 


80 


84 


39 


42 


45 


48 


51 


55 


58 


62 


66 


70 


74 


78 


82 


87 


40 


43 


46 


49 


53 


56 


60 


64 


68 


72 


76 


81 


85 


90 


41 


44 


47 


51 


54 


58 


62 


66 


70 


74 


79 


83 


87 


92 


42 


45 


49 


52 


58 


60 


64 


68 


72 


77 


81 


85 


90 


95 


43 


47 


50 


54 


58 


61 


66 


70 


74 


78 


S3 


88 


93 


97 


44 


48 


51 


55 


59 


63 


67 


72 


76 


81 


85 


90 


95 


100 


46 


49 


53 


57 


61 


65 


69 


73 


78 


S3 


68 


92 


98 


103 


47 


50 


54 


58 


62 


66 


71 


75 


80 


85 


90 


95 


100 


105 


48 


52 


55 


60 


64 


68 


73 


77 


82 


87 


92 


97. 


103 


108 


49 


53 


57 


61 


65 


70 


74 


79 


84 


89 


94 


100 


105 


111 


50 


54 


58 


63 


67 


71 


76 


81 


86 


91 


97 


102 


108 


113 


51 


55 


60 


64 


69 


73 


78 


S3 


88 


93 


99 


104 


110 


116 


53 


57 


61 


65 


70 


75 


80 


85 


90 


95 


101 


107 


113 


119 


54 


58 


62 


67 


72 


76 


82 


87 


92 


98 


103 


109 


115 


121 


55 


59 


64 


68 


73 


78 


83 


89 


94 


100 


106 


111 


118 


124 


66 


60 


65 


70 


75 


80 


85 


91 


96 


102 


108 


114 


120 


127 


57 


62 


66 


71 


76 


82 


87 


92 


98 


104 


110 


116 


123 


129 


58 


63 


68 


73 


78 


83 


89 


94 


100 


106 


112 


119 


125 


132 


80 


64 


69 


74 


79 


85 


90 


96 


102 


108 


115 


121 


128 


134 


61 


66 


71 


76 


'81 


87 


92 


98 


104 


110 


117 


123 


130 


137 


62 


67 


72 


77 


82 


88 


94 


100 


106 


112 


119 


126 


133 


140 


63 


68 


73 


79 


84 


90 


96 


102 


108 


115 


121 


128 


135 


142 


64 


69 


75 


80 


86 


92 


98 


104 


110 


117 


124 


130 


138 


145 


66 


71 


76 


82 


87 


93 


99 


106 


112 


119 


126 


133 


140 


148 


67 


72 


77 


83 


89 


95 


101 


108 


114 


121 


128 


136 


143 


150 


68 


73 


79 


84 


90 


97 


103 


109 


116 


123 


130 


138 


145 


153 


69 


74 


SO 


86 


92 


98 


105 


111 


118 


125 


133 


140 


148 


156 


70 


76 


81 


§7 


94 


100 


106 


113 


120 


127 


135 


142 


150 


158 



TRADES3IA^i'S GUIDE. 



CHAPTER XXXVIII. 



211 



ABSTRACT OF TONNAGE, DUTIES, &c. 

On American vessels six cents per ton; on French vessels one dol- 
lar per ton; and on British vessels from other places, and all other for- 
eign vessels, two dollars per ton; fifty cents per ton, light money, if 
from ports to which vessels of the United States are not permitted to 
go and trade; but from all other ports fifty cents tonnage and fifty cents 
light money. *• 

All vessels of the United States arriving from foreign ports, are sub- 
ject to fifty cents per ton, unless all the otTicers and two-thirds of the 
crew are citizens of the United States. 

TARIFF OF ARTICLES. 

To he Weighed and Gouged* 
Cljp All articles that are subject to an ad valorem duty, are not spe- 
cified in this Tariff. 



Ale, beer, and porter, in bottles 






20 c] 


3er gallon. 


do do do in casks 






15c 


do 


Alum, 




^2,50 per 112 lbs. 


Almonds, 






3 c per lb. 


Anchors, iron and parts of, 






2c 


do 


Anvils, 






2c 


do 


Brandy, see spirits. 










Bacon, 






3c 


per pound- 


Beef 






2c 


do 


Bristles, 






3c 


do 


Butter, 






5c 


do ^ 


Books printed in Latin or Greek, since 


the 


year 






1775, when bound, 






15 c 


do 


*' when unbound, 






13 c 


do 


" printed in English since 1775, w 


hen bound. 


30 c 


do 


" when in sheets or boards. 






26 c 


do 


Brads, sixteen ounces to the thousand. 






5c 


per M. 


" exceeding sixteen ounces per M. 






5 per pound. 


Cables, taiTed, 






4c 


per pound 


Cordage, do 






4c 


do 


do untarred. 






5c 


do 


Cables or chains of iron or parts, (no drawbi 


ick) 


3c 


do 


Castings of iron, not specified, 






1 c 


do 


Camphor, crude, 






Sc 


do 


do refined, 






12c 


do 


Candles, tallow, 






5c 


do 


do wax, 






6c 


do 


do spermaceti, 






8c 


do 


Cassia, Chinese, 






6c 


do 


Cinnamon, 






25 c 


do 


Cloves, 






25 c 


do 


Cocoa, 






2 c 


do 


Chocolate, 






4c 


do 



212 



THE ASTIST AND 



Coffee, 

Cotton, 

Currants, 

Cheese, 

Copper, rods, boUs, spikes, nails, and caniposition 

rods, bolts, and spikes, 
Copperas, 
Candy, Sugar, 
Corks, 
Coals, 

Fish, dried, foreign caught, 
Flour, wheat, 
Gin, see spirits. 
Ginger, 

Glass, wares of cut, not specified, 
All other articles of glass. 
Glue, 
Gunpowder, 



o c per pound. 
3 c do 
3 c do 
9 c do 



4 c do 
$2,00 per 112 lbs. 
12 c per pound 
12 c do 
6 c per bush. 
3 c per pound* 
^^1,00 per 112 lbs. 
50 per do 

2 c per pound. 

3 c do 
2 c do 
5 c do 
So do 



Hammers, blacksmith's, 

Hoops, iron, 

Hemp, 

Hams and other bacon. 

Herrings, smoked, 

Indigo, 
Iron, pig, 

'• bars or bolts, not manufactured in whole or in 

part, by roiling. 90 c 

" in bars or bolts, manufactured by rolling, $1,50 



2 1-2 c per lb. 

3 c do 
$35,00 per ton. 

3 c per pound. 
1,00 per 112 lbs. 
15c per pound. 
50 c per 112 lbs. 



do 



to 



of an inch 



round or braziers' rods, of ^ 

diameter, inclusive, 
*' nails or spike rods, sht, 
** in sheets, 
" for hoops, 
" slit or roiled, for band iron, scroll iron, or 

casement rods, viz. one inch by |, 1|- by ^, 

Hbyi, 
*' cast vessels, if not otherwise specified. 

All other castings, 

Lard, 

Lead, in pigs, bars, or sheets, 

" red or white, dry or ground in oil, 
Looking-Glasses, 
Lines, 
Molasses, 
Mace, 

Mill cranks, wrought iron, 
Mill irons. 

Oil, castor, 
*' linseed, hemp, and rapeseed 



3 c per pound. 



3c 
3c 
3c 



3c 
lie 
1 c 

3c 

2c 
4 c 
2c 
5c 



do 
do 
do 



do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 
do 



5 c per gallon. 
100 c per pound. 
4 c do 
4 c do 

40 c per gallon. 
25 c do 



TRADESMAIS'S GUIBE. 



213 



Oil, olive, in casks, 


25 c 


per gallon. 


" spermaceti, foreign, 


25 c 


do 


" whale and other, 


15 c 


do 


" of vitriol. 


3 c 


per pound. 


Ochre, yellow, dry, 


1 c 


do 


" in oil. 


He 


do 


Oats, 


10 cf 


;er bushel. 


Potatoes, 


10 c 


do 


Paper, folio and quarto post, all kinds. 


20 c 


per pound. 


" foolscap, and all drawing and writing, 


27 c 


do 


" printing, copperplate, and stainer's. 


10 c 


da 


Sheathing, binder's, boxboards and wrapping 






paper. 


3 c 


do 


All other kinds. 


15 c 


do 


Packthread, untarred, 


5c 


do 


Pepper, 


Sc 


do 


" Cayenne, 


15 c 


do 


Pimento, 


6c 


do 


Plums, 


4 c 


do 


Prunes, 


4c 


do 


Pork, 


2c 


do 


Rum, see spirits. 






Raisins, Mus. 


4c 


do 


" in jars and boxes. 


4 c 


do 


All others. 


3 c 


do 


Rope, ciar or coiar, grass, 


5c 


do 


Spirits, from grain, 1st proof, 


42 c per gallon. 


2d do 


45 c 


do 


3d do 


48 c 


do 


4th do 


52 c 


do 


5th do 


60 c 


do 


Above 5th proof. 


75 c 


do 


Spirits, from other materials than grain. 






1st and 2d proof 


38 c 


do 


3d do 


42 c 


do 


4th do 


48 c 


do 


5th do 


57 c 


do 


Above 5th proof. 


70 c 


do 


Sugars, brown. 


3c 


per pound. 


" white, clayed. 


4c 


do 


" do powdered, 


4c 


do 


lump, 


10 c 


do 


loaf. 


12 c 


do 


" candy. 


12 c 


do 


Soap, 


4c 


do 


Snuff, 


12 G 


do 


Salt Petre, refined. 


13 c 


do 


Salts, Glauber, 


2 c 


do 


" Epsom, 


4 c 


do 


Seines, 


5c 


do 


Shot, 


3ic 


do 



214 THE -ARTIST AND 

Steel, f^L,00 per 112 lbs. 

Sheet iron, 3 c per pound. 

Spikes, iron, 4 c do 

Sledges, blacksmith's, 2i c do 

Salmon, smoked, 1,00 per 112 lbs. 

Salt, ^ 20 per 56 lbs. 

Sprigs, exceeding 16 ounces per m. 5 per pound. 
Teas, from China, viz: 

Bohea, 12 c do 

Souchong and other black, 25 c do 

Imperial, Gunpowder, and Gomee, 60 c do 

Hyson and Young Hyson, 40 c do 

Hyson Skin and other green, 28 c do 
Teas,/rom any other place, viz: 

Bohea, 17 c do 
Souchong, and other black, S4 c do 
Imperial, Gunpowder^ and Gomee, 68 c do 
Hyson and Young Hyson, 56 c do 
Hyson Skin and other green, 38 c do 
Tallow, 1 c do 
Tobacco, manufactured, 10 c do 
Twine, untarred, 5 c do 
Tacks, brads, and sprigs, not exceeding sixteen oun- 
ces per M. 5 c pef M. 
*« exceeding sixteen ounces per m. 5 c per pound. 

Vinegar, - 8 c per gallon. 

Vitriol, blue or Roman 4 c per pound, 

Venitian red, (Ochre) dry, 1 c do 

" ground in oil, 1|. c do 
Whiskey, see spirits. 
Wine, Madeira, Burgundy, Champaign, Rhenish, and 

Tokay, 100 c per gallon. 

" Sherry and St. Lucar, 60 c do. 
" Lisbon, Oporto and other wines of Portugal, 50 c do " 

" Sicily, 50 c do 
^' TenerifTe, Fayall, and other wines of the 

western isles, 40 c do 
'* not enumerated, when imported in bottles or 

cases, 30 c do ■ 
All other, when imported otherwise than in 

bottles or cases, 15 c do 

Wares of cut glass, not specified, 3 c per pound. 

White, Paris, 1 c do 

Whiting, 1 c do 

Wire, iron or steel, not exceeding No. 18 5 c do 

" do over No. 18, 9 c do 

Wheat of all kinds, 25 c per bush. 

Wheat Flour, 50 c per 1 12 lbs. 

Yarns, untarredj 5 c per pound. 

Note. The exporter or exporters of any goods, wares or jner- 
chandise, shall give twenty-four hours notice of their intention to ex- 
port; «nd six hoitrs for distilled spirits. ' 



tradesman's ©uide. '215 

The above duties relate to importations in American vessels. Aa 
addition often per cent, is imposed, if brought in foreign bottoms, ex- 
cepting EngUsh, from the British United kingdoms, Sweden, Ham- 
burg, Bremen and Lubec. Oldenburg and Norwegian vessels, which, 
by treaty enjoy the same privilege as our own ships. Teas however, 
pay an sxtra duty, as will be found in the tariff. 

All articles sjbiect to duty, imported into the United States, not 
having been landed more than one ysar, are allowed a drawback of 
the duties (with ths exception of salted and pickled Fish and Provi- 
sions, Fish, Oil, Butter and Playing Cards) subject to a deduction of 
two and a half per cent, except spirits, which is two cents per gallon, 
and three per cent, on the amount of duties. 

ALLOWANCE FOR DRAFTS, ACCORDING TO LAW. 

On any quantity of 100 lbs. or 112 lbs. lib. 

Above 100 lbs- and not exceeding 200 2 

" 200 do 300 3 

" 300 do 1000 4 

" 1000 do 1800 7 

" 1800 do 9 

Usual allowance at the Custom-House, which is considered equal 
to that of the law: 

Sugar, Barrels, 2 lbs. 

Tierces, 4 

Hogsheads, 7 
Boxes, 4 

Cases, J per cent. 

All other goods half per cent, except teas, which have the turn of 
the beam. 

ALLOWANCE FOR LEAKAGE AND BREAKAGE. 

Two per cent, allowed on the gauge on all merchandise. 

Ten per ceat. on all Beer, Ale, and Porter, in bottles. 

Five per cent, on all other liquors in bottles, to be deducted from the 
invoice; or it shall be lawful to compute the duties by tale, at the option 
of the importer, at the time of entry. 

TARES 

According; to Law, and actual weight 
D:^ Those tares not marked actiml are according* to law. 

Almonds, per ce-it. actual. 

Alum, casks, 12 do do 

Bristles, Cronstadt, 12 per cent, actual. 

Butter, 

Beef, 

Cordage, m£\tts. 

Camphor, crude, in tubs, 

do refined, 

Candles, boxes, 
Cassiaj matts, 

do chests. 160 lb*. 





do 




do 


[^ per cent. 


actual. 


55 do 


do 




do 


8 do 




8 do 


do 


:o do- 


M 



.1% 



tradesman's guide. 



Cinnamon, cnests, actual. 

do mats, do 

Cloves, do 

Cocoa, bags, 1 per cent. 

do casks, 10 do 

do ceroons, 10 do do 

Chocolate, boxes, 10 do 
Coffee, bags, 2 do 

do do double, 4 lb. do 
do bales, 3 per ct. do 

do casks, 12 do do 

Cotton, bales, 2 do 

do ceroons, 6 do 

Cm-rants, casks, 12 do do 
Cheese, hampers or 

baskets, 10 do 

do boxes, 20 do 

Copper, casks, 12 do do 

Candy Sugar,in bask'ts 5 do do 

do Sugar in boxes, lO do do 
Corks, sacks, 12 and 15 lbs. do 
Figs, boxes, 60 lbs. 9 lbs. actual 

do half do 36 6i do 

do qr. do 15 

do drums, 

do frails. 
Flour, Wheat) 
Glue, 
Ginger, 
Gunpowder, 



10 per cent, do 
5 do do 
do 
actual, 
do 
do 
Indigo, bags or mats, 3 perct. act'l. 
do ceroons, 10 do do 



do barrels, 



12 



other casks, 15 



do 
do 
do 



do cases, 20 

Looking-Glasses, 

French, 30 per ct. actual 
Lines, do 

Lard, do 

M^acCjCasks or kegs, 33 per ct. act'l. 
Nutmegs, liggers, 21 per ct. act'l 



3, ails, casks 



8 do 



Ochre, French, 12 perct. act'l. 

Pepper, bags, 2 per cent. 

do bales, 5 do 

do casks, 12 do 

Pimento, bags, 3 do 

do bales, 5 do actual. 

da casks, 16 do 



Prunes,^ actual. 

Pork, do 

Raisins, Malaga, 

boxes, 6 lbs. 7 lbs. act'l. 
do do jars, 5 do 

do do casks 12 do 

do Smyrna, do 12 per cent, do 
Sugar, bags or mats, 5 per cent, 
do casks, 12 do 

do boxes, 15 do 

do cannisters, 35 do act'l. 
Soap, boxes, 10 do 

Salts, Glauber, 

in casks, 8 do 

Shot, in casks, 3 do 

Steel, do 

Tea, Bobea, chests, 70 lbs. 

do i do 36 " 

do -1- do 20 " 

do Hyson, or other Green, chests 
70 or upwards, gross, 20 lbs. 
do Souchcngjchests 80 lbs. 20 " 
do Souchong, chests SO lbs. and 
upwards, gross 22 lbs. 

Every box of other tea, not less 
than 50 lbs. nor more than 70 lbs. 
gross, 18 lbs. 

On all other boxes, according to 
invoice, or actual weight. 
Twine casks, 12 per cent. 

do bales, 3 do 
Tallov/, ceroons, 10 perct. actual. 

do casks, 12 do do 
Vitriol, blue or Romar, do 

Yenitian Red, do 

White, Paris, do 

Whiting, do 

Wheat of all kinds, do 

la some instances as stated in the foregoing, 
the actual tares have been determined; but the 
packages may varj' as to their make and size; 
ill that case they must be weighed again, pro- 
vided always, that vviien the original invoices 
of any of tae said articles are produced at the 
time of making entry of such articles, and the 
tare or tares appea.r therein, it shall be lawful 
for the collector and naval officer, where there 
is one, if they see fit, with the consent of the 
importer, consignee, or consignees, to estimate 
the said tare or tares according to such invoice; 
but if not determined at the time of entry, the 
tare or tares as above shall be granted or al- 
lowed. 



x^. 



i) V ■ M 



■<fc, 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 

030 005 196 if I 



^ 



